1. 1. Introduction
Castelect is a newly coined word. It is a combination of two lexemes, Caste and Lect. Caste is social grouping of Indian society. Lect is taken from the words such as dialect and idiolect.
Castelect is a form of language use that is stratified on the basis of castes. It is one of the dynamic forms through which caste-oriented social relationships manifest. It is different from the caste dialect.
Castelect is one of the dynamic forms through which caste-oriented social relationships manifest. Castelect is different from caste dialect. Caste dialect is generally used to indicate that the members of different castes may speak varieties of language that differ from one caste to another. On the other hand, castelect is a process or speech variety that carries caste identity features, in specific communication contexts. These features directly or indirectly, often without any deliberate intent, reveal or communicate the caste identity of the users of that variety. These also reveal the placement of the individuals, who participate in the communication process, in the social hierarchy. Let me illustrate the difference between the notions of castelect and caste dialect by giving an example from Kerala.
Kerala is the home of Malayalam language. Kerala state in India is linguistically the most homogeneous state among all the different states in India. Generally, each society has its own system of stratification. It may be class or caste. The social stratification of a society exists only with relation to the power structure of the society. Class is associated mainly with the economic status of an individual or society. On the other hand, caste distinctions are rather inherited. The other features such as sex, age, education, occupation, etc., also contribute to social stratification.
Language reveals the differences between social groups, which form part of a given social stratification. The centuries-old caste hierarchy has dominated the Indian scene. In Kerala, until recently, caste played a major role in social stratification. In the past people had been using a kind of language with overt caste hierarchical markers. The speech variety with these overt caste hierarchical markers may be described as castelects. Now due to the possibility of social mobility available through education, etc., an individual can enter any social class except caste. In this sense, caste still has a significant role to play in the present day Kerala society. However, where there is no manifest social change in relation to caste identity and hierarchy, and where there is really no impact of education, etc. on deriving the social hierarchy of individuals, castelect makes it presence. Some of the villages in Kerala may be cited as the best example for this phenomenon.
This paper reports on the research study that was conducted in Sreekrishnapuram, a village at Palakkadu district in Kerala. This study used the theory of Critical Language Study (CLS). According to Fairclough (1989), CLS would place abroad the conception of the social study of language at the core of language study. CLS analyzes social interactions in a way that focuses upon their generally hidden determinants in the system of social relationships, as well as hidden effects they may have upon the system.
1. 2. Kerala and Its Geography
The unique geographical features of Kerala have given it a peculiar individuality. The land of Kerala comprises the narrow coastal strip bounded by the western Ghats on the east and the Arabian Sea on the west in the southern part of the Indian Peninsula.
Kerala state lies between 8 degree 18 and 12 degree 48 North latitude and between 74 degree 52 and 77 degree 24 East longitudes, It has a total area of 15, 0022 sq. miles and a coast line which is nearly 360 miles long. The territory of the State may be brutally divided into three natural divisions like the highland, the midland, and the low land. The mountains and hills of Kerala have played their part in its history. The Western Ghats have formed almost an unbroken wall guarding the eastern frontier and helped the people of Kerala to lead a sheltered life of their own through the centuries.
1. 2. 1. History and Culture of Kerala
Kerala, however, is a land of many cultures. It has received foreign influences of other non-Indian cultures even during the ancient and medieval periods. It is evident from the classical languages such as Sanskrit, Greek, Latin, Hebrew, Chinese, Arabic, and Persian, etc, that their vast vocabularies include at least a word to indicate Kerala. Kerala is definitely excluded from the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) map of India, because the quartzite out of which the vast majority of the Paleolithic antiquities were made was scarce in this area. But Megalithic Culture may be seen all over the State. It is believed that the preliterate communities of Kerala such as the Kadars, the Kanikkars, the Malapanadrams, the Muthuvans, the Ullatans, the Uralis, and the Paniyas are the earliest inhabitants of Kerala. All these tribes belong to the Dravidian family.
It is historically proved that the processes of Aryanization in Kerala started during the period of early 9th century. Tall and fair-complexioned in physique, sharp and sure in intellect, Aryans quickly established their superiority over the natives, muttering and chanting Veda mantras in sacrifices, reading and explaining stories of Ramayana, Mahabhratha and Bhagavata and proving their scholarship and quick-wittedness in debates (Ramachandran, 1978:34). They were acting as priests and enjoying a superior socio-political position as advisers to Kings and at times, acting as kingmakers, they dominated over the native people. This Aryan Brahmins are known as Nambutiris in Kerala. Nambutiri Brahmins as such are not entitled to exert any secular authority and there were, however, a few sovereign rulers among them, such as the rajas of Edapppally, Porakkadu and Parur who belonged to this class (Padmanabha Menon, 1929, 417). But Visscher says that the Nambutiris had also the patronage of all offices and dignitaries within their territories, so that in this respect also, they were independent in the same manner as some of the German Bishops; only that their dignity was hereditary, whereas that of the German Bishop was electoral (ibid, 1929). It is true that a new economic class, a feudal class during the hey-days of the Kulasekharas, emerged out of the groups that were in charge of temple administration. With the discomfiture and defeat of the Kulasekharas and the disorder that followed, the Nambutiris inherited much landed properties owned by the temples. No doubt this economic class exercised greater political influences as well. Some of them became even rulers of some principalities. Early literary works and historical records confirm this (Elakulam, 1979: 326).
2. 1. Social Stratification and Kerala Society
Social stratification is one of the determining factors for social structure. Sorokin, a well-known sociologist, says that social stratification means the differentiation of a given population into hierarchically super-posed classes (Sorokin 1961). It is manifested in the existence of upper and lower layers. Its basis and every essence consist in an unequal distribution of rights and privileges. Social power influences the members of the society (Sorokin 1961:570). Sorokin used the geological metaphor layer to refer to stratification, though social stratification does not manifest itself readily to the naked eye. There are no differences between hierarchy and social stratification in his notion. But he cleverly mentioned that social stratification generates inequality and hierarchy. But not all system of stratification is hierarchical.
Sociologists like Dipankar Gupta (Gupta 2000) have given a somewhat different opinion about social stratification. Gupta says that 'as a function mechanism, a society must somehow distribute its members in social positions and induce them to perform the duties of these positions.'
Hierarchy and social differences are closely related to stratification. Even though most of the sociologist did not try to differentiate the two, hierarchy and social difference are central to all theories of social stratification and its commonly used concepts like Caste, Class, and Status.
Social stratification is a way of ranking large groups of people into a hierarchy that shows their relative privileges. Social stratification is a system in which people are divided into layers according to their relative power, property and prestige. Max Weber (1958) says the formulations of the three axes of stratification are Class, Status, and Property. Among them he has given importance to status. Each of these axes revolved around a single variable. Class was determined by reward in the market place, status centered around the concept of social prestige, and the crucial variables behind the party was power.
3. 1. Caste and Society
Caste system is a form of social stratification, in which individual status or position is determined by birth and is life-long. Achieved status cannot change an individual's place in this system. It means a person who was born in a particular caste cannot change his caste. There are some differences between caste and class. Class is also a form of social stratification though it is quite different from caste. Class is primarily based on the possession of economic status or material possessions. According to Max Weber (1958) classes are not communities, they merely represent possible and frequent bases for communal action.
Some sociologists say that we may speak of a class when a number of people have in common a specific casual component of their life chances, insofar as, this component is represented exclusively by economic interests in the possessions of goods and opportunities for income, and is represented under the conditions of the commodities or labour markets, This point refers to class situation, The term Class refers to any groups or people that is found in the same class situation (ibid. 454). Then the question of caste definitions is raised here. Ram Ahuja (2000) says that castes are hereditary endogamous groups with fixed traditional occupations, observing prohibitions and social restrictions on interaction. It is believed that there are three thousand castes in India which may be classified as Upper castes, Intermediate castes, and lower castes. Generally, the three layers of this caste system could also be seen in the society of Kerala.
In the past, Kerala society had been stratified on the basis of caste hierarchy. The caste system was very rigid in those days and it also differed from the systems followed in other Indian States. Each caste had its own rituals and food habit and dressing style. Endogamy, the marriage within one's own caste or group, maintains the rigidity of caste system in Kerala like some other states in India. It is said that Kulathozhil (Family labour) was the determining factor of the caste system in Kerala. Kerala society, during the 18th and 19th centuries, was not based on the principles of social freedom and equality. Its chief characteristic was the deep chasm that separated the upper castes from the low castes.
The upper castes were known as Savarna Jaati and the lower castes known as Avarna Jaati. Savarna Jati includes Nambutiris, Kshatriyas, Nairs and Ambalavasi like Warier, Nambiar, and Nambeesan. Avarna Jaati includes Thiya, (Ezhava), Cheruma, paraya, Paana, Pulaya, and other subaltern groups and aboriginals, the tribal people. Avarna Jaati had been considered as untouchable and impure. In Kerala, pollution could traditionally be transmitted not only by touch, but also through the air. If the difference in caste rank was sufficiently great; the latter was known as distance pollution. The Upper castes like the Brahmin (Nambutiris), and the Kshatriyas and the Nairs had enjoyed several privileges and immunities, These people constituted the land-owning class, and they freely oppressed the tenant-class consisting mainly of such communities as the Ezhavas and Mappilas (Sreedhara Menon, 1988: 317). The lower castes had been treated as slaves. The Janmis, or the landlords had even the power to put them to death without being called to account. Historians say that none of them could enjoy social amenities like keeping milky-cows, wearing fine clothes, moving in conveyances, living in titled houses, using metallic utensils, etc. Woman of lower castes including Ezhavas were prevented from wearing the blouse (Ibid: 320).
3. 2. Social Change in Kerala
The early decades of the 20th century witnessed the beginning of powerful social reform movements in Kerala, the impact of which was felt by the members of the upper castes too. Western Education, and consequent modernization are the basic stones of the social reformation in Kerala. Social institutions were formed to fight against the brutal rituals of upper castes. Each caste had organized itself with its own caste institutions to fight and overcome social evils and social stigma. All of them worked for the eradication of untouchability and demanded freedom for travel on the public roads and temple entry. Sri Chitra Tirunal Balarama Varma promulgated the Temple Entry for All Castes Declaration on November 12, 1936. It was a big blow to the fundamentalist groups among the Hindus.
Another movement of socio-economic importance was the agitation for the reformation of the laws of inheritance and marriage. Agrarians' reforms had also played a major role to bring about social changes in Kerala.
The society in Kerala was stratified on the basis of castes. The caste system was so rigid in Kerala. However, the post-British Kerala society is now vastly different. Due to social mobility, the society has become more flexible, though caste is still a major element in the new social stratification of Kerala, along with other strata such as economic status, education, and gender.
3. 3. Castelect and Politeness
Generally, the politeness is the linguistic expression of courtesy and social position, (Actually, the linguistic expression is triggered and conditioned by several non-linguistic aspects.) The linguistic aspects of politeness has been much studied in recent years and a number of important variables have been identified. These include tone of voice, markers of status, terms of address, degrees of certainty of confidence, discourse markers, the choice between speaking and remaining silent, acceptability of direct question and others (Thirumalai 1983). The rules of politeness vary considerably from society to society, and it is very easy to give inadvertent offence when talking to speakers of another language (Trask 1997:242).
The ability to use language appropriately in social situations is known as communicative competence. Socio-linguistic competence was also essential for speaking Castelect. It means knowledge of such things as how to begin and end conversation, how and when to be polite, and how to address people (Ibid: 41-42). Castelect can also be seen among the old generation. Even now, castelect is an outlet to express their loyalty to higher castes. It is an ossified tradition.
3. 4. Sample Data
Following is the main vocabulary of castelect, with English meaning, that is used in palagade, a traditional district in kerala,. Palgade is the anglicized form of palakkadu. It is situated on the eastern ghat of Kerala. The data is collected for the present study at Sreekrishnapuram, one of the villages in Palakkadu. Sreekrishnapuram has a population of 12,868 persons according to the last census report in 2001. Majority is Hindu .Christians are next to them. Muslims are also there. Sreekrishnapuram is a land of Temples and festivals. There are thirteen temples. Two Christian churches and a mosque are also there. The post-independent rapid social changes are not manifest in this village. Industrialization and "Gulf money," the main factors of social changes in Kerala, did not cause any significant changes in Sreekrishnapuram village. Agriculture continues to be the main source of income. The village maintains traditional customs. The people have more interest in and greatly appreciate Kathakali, the classical dance drama rather than films. Moreover, Kathakali continues to be an output of the aesthetic sense of upper caste people. Upper castes have influential role to play even in cultivation and maintenance of the aesthetic taste of other people.
In fact, the power of castelect has been perpetuated by both upper and lower castes. Lower castes have a very dependent attitude towards the upper castes, and we notice this especially among the people from the old generation. What Foucault says about power is also relevant in this context. He says that Power is a networking of relations and practices through the social. It is found in intuition, and forms of administration and family relations, but it is not exactly located in these locations. In other words, power does not radiate out from specific points, or nodes. It is more like a series of inter-linked threads in the social fabric, which, become more tense when they cross each other. Power is everywhere because it comes from everywhere (Till, 1991:94). It means that the power dominance of the upper caste people through language use has a significant support from the lower caste, due to their dependent attitude toward the upper castes.
A
Akathaal (N): Princess/a lady who belongs to
Namboothiri Brahmin, Naboothiri sthree (Current usage in Malayalam)
Akkamma (N) : Princess. Formerly used by the lower
castes. Thampuratti
Adiyaan (N): 1. I,
2. My humble self. Nhan
3. reply term
Adiyaathi (F)
Adiyan (N): Servant - Lower class , agricultural
worker
Adiyanitheram (N) : 1. Religious ceremony that must
be observed. 2. Celebration.
Adiyanga l(N): We
Adiyar (N): Servant
Adiyaatti (N): Female servant
Athazhaamerdeth (N): Supper of higher caste people
Aruliceyuka (V): To tell (Higher pople
Arullappaad : 1. Order (of kings, Oracles)
2. Divine word
Avidunn (N): 1. You
2. He, Pronoun, your
honorific/ Master
E
Erikkannamma (N):Servant (F)
Erithippenn (N): Servant (F)
Ellattamma (N):"Namboothiri lady (Brahmin)
Evidunn (N): He
Ezhunnarulluka (vt) March in a solemn procession (
spoken of gods, kings and such distinguished personages)
Ezhunnallath (N):Spectacular procession or going of dignitaries
and deities.
Ezhunnalluka (V.i.) Proceed in a solemn way (in a
procession)
Eraan (V) 1.Yes, 2. Yes your Highness.
U
Unnarthikkuka (V.t.): To inform, (higher submit (
respectfully)
Uukkukazhikkuka (v.t.) :Perform evening prayer,
libation during morning noon and evening for Brahmin.
O
Oothal (V):1. Reciting of Vedic mantras.2.Chanting.
Oothikkan (N):The Brahmin guru who teaches the Veda.
Oothan (N): One who has studied the Veda.
K
Kalapana (N):Order
Kallari(N): Rice,which used by lower caste.
Kuppadam (N) Hut( In the language of the humble and
the lowly)
Kuppappad
Kuppamaadam
Kurimaanam (N):A short note, Chit of royal
Kuttuppaad (N):Fault, guilt of lower caste.
Kettilamma (N):Consort of a king , in same royal
family.
Kett Kallyannam (N): the marriage ceremony of tying a
"thaali" around the neck of an unmarried girl, among higher castes.
Kaikutam (N): Handiwork, slip committed while working
with the hands of lower people
Kaikuttappad (N): Handiwork of lower castes.
Kaicheett (N): Affidavit, receipt Of Higher Caste
Kovilakam (N):residence of a king palace, residence
of a Kshatriyas chief.
Kovil (N):1.Temple 2.Palace
Cha
Chrubudhi (N):Small intellect of lower castes
Cheriyampuraan: Address term among Lower castes to call
higher caste
Tha
Thampiran (N): God
Thampuram (N) King, Master, Lord, Title of
distinction.
Thampuratti (N): (Female)
Thanrppanacherka (V) satisfy, offer libation to the
spirits of the dead, Sprinkles consecrated water.
Thlappaav (N): Turban of Royal
Thalika (N): Plate, shallow plate made of metal of
Higher castes
Tharavadi (N):A man of noble birth
Tharavaltitham (N): Nobility
Tharavad (N) (ancestral) Matriarchical family.
Tharavattama (N): Matriarch, a lady of high caste
TharavatuKarannasvar (N): The eldest member of the
family
Thiru (Pfx): Colloquial form of Sri holy,
divine, noble, respectable
Thiru Nada (N) Threshold of a temple or palace
Thirunaal (N): Birth day of a king , holy day
Thirunetti (N): Brow of gods and kings
Thirumadhuram (N): Sweet offerings of the gods during
worship
ThiruManass (N): Honorific term referring to a king, or Brahmin,
(Your highness, Excellancy)
Thirumudi (N): The royal head crown, on the head of a
king or deity.
Thirumunp (N) Presence of Kind, His highness.
Thirumulkkazhechaa (N): An offering to king or god or
to one's superiors.
Thirumeeni (N): Holy body, Honorific term referring
to a king or Brahmin.
Thiruvadi (N) His excellency's holy feet.
Thoiruvathazham (N) His excellency's supper
Thiruaabharannam (N): Ornaments used adoring deities
in the temples.
Thiruvaayemozhi (N) Holy words of divine or royal
Thiruvullam (N):Mind of a royal/ divine person
Thiruvullakked (N): Displeasure of Kings or Brahmin or Great man.
Thiruvezhuth (N): King's Order
Theettu (N): A king's Order/written commend
Theetturam (N) King's Order/ King's granting some
right or permission
Theendaappaad (N) saje distance away from a person or object
likely to cause pollution.
Theendaari (N):Menstruation
Theenduka (V) Cause pollution by going too near a
high caste person. Pollute by looking at a person, be bitten by a snake.
ThrU (pfx): The eyes of God, king, Brahmin
Thrukkann Parkkuka (V) See, look (king or Gods)
Thrkkai (N) Hand of kings, God and Upper caste
peoples
Thrkkaivillayaduka (V) Putting signature of Higher
people
Thruppadi (N): a holy entrance
Thiruynaav (N): Higher people's tongue
Thirunaal (N) Birthday of Higher people
Thirunaasika (N):Nose of Higher people
Thirunila, (N): Land of higher people
Thirupuda (N): Dress of higher people
Thirumanakamp (N):Mind of higher people
Thirumanass (N): Higher people's Mind
Thirumadamp (N): 1.Investiture with the Brahmin's scared threat
2. Invocation
Thriru maridam (N):Chest of higher people
Thirumoizhi (N): Eyes of higher people
Thirumup (N): Before the of higher people
Thirumudi (N):Hair of higher people
Thirumuttam (N):Yard of higher people
ThiruMugham (N):Face of higher people
Thrirumuthilakkuka (V):Washing of higher people
ThiruMoopp (N): King's power
Thiruvadi (N):Feet of higher people
Thiruvaya (N); of higher people Mouth
Thruvayaozhika (V): To give birth to a kind of Higher
people
Pa
Palli (Pfx): Royal place
Pallikpolluka (V): King's sleeping
Pallikkattil (N): King's coat/ Brahmin's Bed]
Pallikkurupp (N): Sleep of king
Pallikuruppu onnaruka (V): wake up of a king
Pallikkuruppu unarthuka (V) Make wake up of a king
PallikkettU (N): royal marriage
Pallithevaaram (N): daily ceremonies performed by
kings
Palliyar (N): Bedroom of kings
Palliyrakkam (N) King's sleep
Paslliyoodam (N):the boat used by member of the royal
family
Pallivaal (N): the royal sword
Palli vilakk (N): Royal lantern
Pallivetta (N):Hunting of king's
PallisanghU (N): Royal conch
Pa
Pazhya (V.t): damaged
Pazhakanhi (N); poor people's food
Pazhakannu (N):Eye of poor people
Pazhankarnnavaor (N): Uncle of poor people
Pazha Manass (N):Mind of poor people
Phanetti (N): Brow of poor people
Pazhavayass (N): Age of poor people
Porathekke kodukuka (V): Give food to lower caste
from the houses of higher people.
Ma
Mudinhuaruluka (V): Death of higher people
Ya
Yajamaan (N); 1.Higher officer2, Higher people
Va
Vidakolluka (V):1.go 2. Tell
Vidakolluka (N): Permisson.
Shilayima (N): Illness.
3. 4. 2. Linguistic Aspects of the Castelect
There are two different ways to create castelect words:
- Add preposition such as -palli, -thiru, -phazha, -cheru, -adi- (see the vocabulary list given above).
- Add auxiliaries like charthu and kolluka.
In this thiru may have been derived form the Prakrit root siri. thiru became thru just before the velar stops. (k,kh,g, gh)
4. 1. Conclusion
Social Mobility is one of the significant factors that trigger social change. The pre-British Indian society did not preclude mobility, but the strict and rigid caste hierarchy did hamper mobility. The British were instrumental in bringing modern knowledge to India. They introduced industrialization and English education. This introduction had profound influence on Indian episteme. Apart from the British influence, there were also certain other elements that helped mobility of the people. European Missionary work was one among them. Missionaries had also played a major role in the modernization of India. Missionaries were active in humanitarian work and education. They ran hospitals, orphanages, and schools, concentrating their attention on the poor and the lowly, that is, the untouchable and other classes from the low castes, tribal folks living in remote areas, and women behind the Paurdah. They stimulated the growth of regional literatures by setting up printing presses, and cutting types for various Indian scripts, printing books and publishing journals, writing dictionaries and grammars and translating classics in the regional tongues into English (Srinivas, 2000:319). Backward classes movements were another factor that helped mobility. These movements had spread all over India. The movements helped the backward classes to get more political power, education, and a better share in the new economic opportunities.
The Critical Language Study of the castelect presented here in this paper analyzed the relationship between language and power in Kerala. The methodology of CLS tries to bring out the power and ideology that are often hidden beneath the forms of the castelect that people habitually use. As a tool of power hierarchy of any Indian society, castelect includes the ideology of the upper castes. The socio-economic relations were linked to the religious modes of behavior and language devices were exploited and coined to perpetuate and demonstrate the power that the upper castes hold over the lower castes.
A form of language for the communication between the upper and the lower castes was evolved and now the people are compelled to use it. Castelect became an overt expression of the power of the upper castes.
Castelect is a central vehicle for perpetuating the power structure in Kerala. The lower caste people, especially, the older generation, have been using the castelect even now, shows their obedient attitude to the upper castes. They are not able to eliminate and get away from the traditional custom.
Castelect is not so transparent and it is never neutral or ideologically innocent, but designed to convey the hierarchy of caste in Kerala. It also expresses the hegemony. Gramscy's hegemony is applicable here to analyze castelect more seriously. Gramscy argued that historically the ruling classes have been able to exercise leadership not through direct coercion but by indirect means, through what he defined as the concept of hegemony. Under hegemonic control, people actively work towards their own subordination, which coincides with continuation of the dominant power groups (Webster, 2001:23).
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