LANGUAGE IN INDIA

SYNTAX AND SEMATNTICS OF VERBS OF TRANSFER IN TAMIL

S. Rajendran, Ph.D.

1. Introduction

The verbs grouped here express in general 'TRANSFER' of an object. A transfer typically requires three arguments: the object transferred, the giver/looser and the receiver/gainer. Some of the verbs grouped here may fail to receive all the three arguments, but their presence will be felt in the interpretation of their meanings. The transfer could be distinguished into two based on whether the giver/loser is the nominative-subject or receiver/gainer is the nominative-subject. They form two directionally opposite groups and the typical cases of the two transfers can be described as follows:

1. Subject causes Object to move to Receiver.
2. Subject causes Object to move from Possessor.

Accordingly these verbs can be sub-grouped under two heads:

1. Verbs of LOSING.
2. Verbs of GAINING.

'Losing' and 'loser/giver' are used in broader senses covering a range of verbs denoting giving, loosing, throwing, pouring out, dropping, etc and a range of participants respectively. Similarly gaining and 'gainer/receiver' are used in a broader sense covering a range of verbs denoting getting, buying, taking, etc. and range of participants respectively. The verbs of transfer are different from verbs of motion. The verbs of motion denote change of position/location only whereas verbs of transfer denote change of possession (i.e. change of possessor) leading to the change of position/location of the object transferred. So, the verbs of motion are typically intransitive verbs where as the verbs of transfer are typically transitive verbs. In the case of verbs of motion the subject is the moving entity whereas in the case of verbs of transfer the object is the moving entity.

2. Verbs of losing

The verbs denoting the transfer of an entity (realized in accusative form) from a possessor (realized in nominative form and functioning as subject of the verb) to a receiver/location (realized in dative form or N+iTam) are grouped here. The verbs denoting giving, sending, paying, depositing, pledging, selling, spending, throwing, pouring, dropping, placing, leaving and losing are grouped here. The following are the diagnostic features, which distinguish them from each other.

1. +ACTIVE LOOSING vs. -ACTIVE LOOSING: If the possessor of the entity loses the entity intentionally or volitionally, then the action is marked for +ACTIVE LOSING; if the possessor loses the entity non-volitionally or non-intentionally, then the action is marked for -ACTIVE LOOSING. The feature '+ACTIVE LOSING' marks the verbs koTu, taa, oppaTai, oppuvi, aLi, ii, vazangku, viniyooki, parimaaRu, anuppu, eeRRumaticey, celuttu, kaTTu, oTukku, aTai, aTakuvai, paNayamvai, aTamaanamvai, iiTuvai, ottivai, pooTu-1, iTu-1, vil, celavazi, celaviTu, eRi, viicu, ey, eevu, uuRRu, koTTu, pooTu-2, iTu-2, vai and viTu. The subject of these verbs loses the object, for example, by giving the object to somebody, depositing the object in a bank, throwing the object somewhere, etc. The feature '-ACTIVE LOSING' marks the verbs tolai, kaLai, paRikoTu and iza.
2. +SPENDING vs. -SPENDING: If one exhaust or consume ones resource, then the action is marked as +SPENDING. The verbs celavazi and celaviTu are marked by the feature '+SPENDING'.
3. +SELLING vs. -SELLING: If one transfer the entity in his possession to someone by receiving the money in return, then such action is marked for the feature +SELLING. The verb vil is marked by the feature '+SELLING'.
4. +RECORDING vs. -RECORDING: If something is transferred to somebody or somewhere, the transfer will be recorded as in the case of depositing money in a bank. The feature '+RECORDING' specifies this. The verbs of paying, depositing, and pledging are marked for the plus feature. Thus the verbs kaTTu, aTai, oTukku, celuttu, pooTu-1, aTakuvai, paNayamvai, iiTuvai and ottivai imply the feature '+RECORDING'.
5. +RECEIVER vs. -RECEIVER: If the receiver participates in the action of LOSING internally or overtly as one of the arguments of the verb, that verb is marked for the feature +RECEIVING. The verbs koTu, taa, oppaTai, oppuvi, aLi, ii, vazangku, viniyooki and parimaaRu internally or overtly take a receiver. The verbs eRi, viicu, ey, eevu, uuRRu, koTTu, pooTu, iTu, vai and viTu do not take receiver internally or overtly as one of its arguments and so are marked by the feature -RECEIVER. That is, the verbs marked for +RECEIVER are basically three-place verb with receiver as one of its arguments and verbs marked for -RECEIVIVER are basically two place verbs with the absence of a receiver.
6. +SENDING vs. -SENDING: If a one causes an object to go or to be taken from one place or person to another, then it is marked for the feature +SENDING. Sending does not imply the immediate transference of the object, whereas, giving implies the immediate transference of the object. The feature +SENDING marks the verb anuppu.

A few more verbs, which are formed by noun plus verb collocation, are also included here under the groups such as verbs of paying, depositing, pledging, etc.

3. Verbs of giving

The verbs koTu, taa, oppaTai, oppuvi, aLi, vazangku, viniyooki and prarimaaRu are grouped here. They are capable of receiving three arguments: one is the giver, which is realized as a nominative phrase, which functions as the subject of the verbs, second is the entity, which is transferred, which is realized as an accusative case phrase, which functions as the object of the verbs and the third is the receiver, which is realized as a dative case phrase or as a postpositional phrase carrying the postposition iTam. A set of verbs denotes giving in general. Certain other verbs are marked for some specific features such as +ENTRUST, +SERVE, +BENEFACTION/AWARD, +DISTRIBUTE and +SERVE.

Among the verbs grouped here, koTu and taa express giving in general. They are three place verbs capable of taking three arguments: one is the giver realized in nominative form, the other is the entity which gets transferred realized in accusative form and the third is the receiver which is either realized in dative form or in N+iTam form. taa is preferably used when the receiver is a first or second person and koTu is preferred when the receiver is a third person (at least in southern dialect of Tamil). The use of koTu with other persons as receivers is less in frequency.

avan          avaL-ukkup           paNam           koTu-tt-aan
he                 she_dat                   money           give_past_he
'He gave her money.'

avan          avaL-iTam          paNam          koTu-tt-aan
he           she_place           money           give_past_he
'He gave her money.'

avan         en-akkup           paNam          ta-ndt-aan
he            I_dat                 money               give_past_he
'He gave me money.'

avan            enn-iTam              paNam           ta-ndt-aan
he              I_dat                     money             give_past_he
'He gave me money.'

The verbs oppaTai and oppuvi are marked for the feature +ENTRUST as they imply the special sense of transferring something to somebody's custody for safekeeping or handing over somebody's property to another safely. Safekeeping implies temporary transfer and handing over implies that the giver is a mediator rather than the real giver. The use of oppuvi is restricted to written language. The receiver-argument is marked by iTam and cannot be marked by dative -ku. koTu and taa do not imply entrusting.

raaman      tan    viiTT-ait      tan      ndaNpan-iTam      oppaTai-tt-u-viT-T-up/oppi-tt-u-viT-T-up      puunaa      ce-nR-aan
Raman       his      house_acc    his      friend_with      entrust_past_par_leave_past_par      Poona      go_past_he
'Raman went to Poona after entrusting his house to his friend.'

raaman    tan      makaL-aik      kaNNan-iTam      oppaTai-tt-aan/oppuvi-tt-aan
Raman      his      daughter_acc      Kannan_with      entrust_past_he
'Raman entrusted his daughter to Kannan.'

raaman    kaNNan     ta-nd-ta      paNatt-ai      raataiy-iTam      oppaTai-tt-aan/oppuvi-tt-aan
Raman     Kannan      give_past_rp      money_acc      Radha_with      hand over_past_he
'Raman handed over to Radha the money that Kannan gave.'

*raaman     tan      makaLaik      kaNNan-ukku      oppaTai-tt-aan/oppuvi-tt-aan
Raman     his      daughter_acc      Kannan_dat      entrust_past_he

The verbs aLi, ii and vazangku are marked for the feature +BENEFACTION/AWARD as they generally denote giving something as a gift. They are also capable of receiving three arguments: one is the giver realized as a nominative phrase, another is the entity, which is transferred, which is realized as an accusative case phrase and the third is the receiver, which is realized as a dative case phrase. iTam is not used in the place of dative -ku. ii, which is almost obsolete, is used only in the classical language to denote 'giving something as a gift'.

The use of aLi is restricted to written language to denote 'giving something as an award'. It collocates with a number of nominal elements expressing different benefits: parisaLi (parisu 'presentation'+ aLi) 'give presentation', paTTamaLi (paTTam 'degree'+aLi) 'award degree', tiirppaLi (tiirppu 'verdict'+ aLi) 'give verdict', taNTanai aLi (taNTanai 'punishment') 'give punishment', candtooSamaLi (sandtooSam 'happiness'+aLi) 'give happiness', vaakkaLi (vaakku 'promise') 'give promise', patilaLi (patil 'reply'+aLi) 'reply'. The use of vazangku is also restricted to written language. It is used with the meaning 'distribute; give present, gift, degree, verdict, punishment, etc.' vazangku differs from koTu, taa, aLi and ii by implying 'distribution or giving to more than one person' in some of its contexts.

ndaan         raatai-kkup         pommai         paris-aLi-tt-een
I                 Radha-dat         toy         gift_give_past_I
'I presented a toy to Radha.'

*ndaan         raatai_iTam         pommai         paris-aLi-tt-een
I                      Radha_with         toy         gift_give_past_I

ndiitipati        kuRRavaaLi-kkut         taNTanai         aLi-tt-aar
judge                 offender_dat         punishment         give_past_he
'The judge gave punishment to the offender.'

aracan       pulavarkaL-ukkup           parisil           ii-ndt-aan
king           poets_dat                       gift           give_past_he
'The king gave gifts to the poets.'

ndaan    kuzandtaikaL-ukku           miTTaay           vazangk-in-een
I         children_dat                          sweet           distribute_past_I
'I distributed sweets to the children.'

maavaTTa     aaTciyar           maaNavarkaL-ukkup           paricu vazangk-in-aar
district         collector           students-dat prize                     give_past_he
'District collector distributed prizes to the students.'

ndiitipati      avaL-ukkut           taNTanai           vazangk-in-aar
judge           she_dat                   punishment            give_past_he
'He gave her punishment.'

viniyooki is marked for the feature +DISTRIBUTE as it implies apportioning among many by separating something into parts, units, or amounts. Its use is restricted to the administrative variety of the language to denote 'distributing things like application forms, rationed articles, etc'. pakirndtaLi and pakirndtu koTu (the compound verb formed by combining the past participle form to the verb pakir 'separate to share' with aLi 'give' and koTu 'give') are used in the non-technical sense to denote 'dividing and distributing in portion'.

kuTumpa         aTTaikaL-ukku           arici           viniyooki-tt-anar
family                cards_dat                rice           distribute_past_they
'They distributed rice for ration cards.'

avan         tan         paNatt-ai           ellaam           eezaikaL-ukku           pakirndtaLi-tt-aan/pakirndtukoTu-tt-aan
he               his        money              all                   poor people_dat           distribute_past_he
'He distributed his money among poor.'

The verb parimaaRu is marked for the feature +SERVE. parimaaRu expresses serving meal while the diners are seated and dining.

avaL         avan-ukkuc           caappaaTu           parimaaR-in-aaL
she          he_dat                      meals           serve_past_she
'She served him meal.'

4. Verb of Sending

The verb anuppu and eeRRumaticey are marked for '+SENDING'. They denote an action causing an entity to change its location leading to change of possession and position. They imply the action of an agent or sometimes an agency or instrumentality that initiates passage of one to another typically by ordering or directing or by using force. They do not imply the immediate transfer of the object and thus differs from the verbs of giving. One can suppose a distance between the giver and receiver. Like most of the verbs of transfer, anuppu and eeRRumaticey are also a three-place verb in which the sender is realized as a nominative case phrase, which functions as the subject of the verbs, the receiver is realized as a dative case phrase and the entity which is transferred, is realized as an accusative case phrase, which functions as the object of the verbs. The dative ukku cannot be replaced by iTam to denote the same meaning. eeRRumaticey denotes sending especially of heavy goods or articles specifically by ship or more generally by any normal commercial transportation channel. eeRRumaticey takes a location as the receiver rather than a person.

avan         avaL-ukkuk           kaTitam         anupp-in-aan
he                 she_dat                letter         send_past_he
'He sent her a letter.'

ndaan         avaL-ai         viiTT-ukku         anupp-in-een
I                 she_acc         house_dat         send_past_I
'I sent her home.'

avarkaL                candtiran-ukku                eevukaNai           anupp-in-aarkaL
they                         moon_dat                   rocket                      send_past_they
'They sent a rocket to moon.'

?avan           avaL-iTam           kaTitam           anupp-in-aan
he                   she_with           letter                   send_past_he
'He sent the letter through her.'

indtiyaa           amerikkaav-ukku           carkkarai           eeRRumaticey-t-atu
India                America_dat                 sugar                export_past_it
'India exported sugar to America.'

The following table shows the syntactic and semantic features of these verbs.

5. Verbs of Remitting

The verbs celuttu, kaTTu, oTukku, aTai, pooTu-1, and iTu-1 are grouped here. These verbs are two place verbs in which the giver is realized as a nominative phrase, which functions as the subject of the verbs and the entity, which is transferred (mostly money), is realized as an accusative case phrase, which functions as the object of the verb. They can take a location realized as a locative case phrase (marked for the locative case il) where the money is remitted/paid. celuttu is used in the written language to denote 'paying tax, tribute, respect, etc.'. As a preferable term in the administrative discourse (i.e. as a technical register), it differs from kaTTu, oTukku and aTai. oTukku denotes 'paying fees, dues, tax, fine'. aTai can denote 'paying back the debts', but kaTTu and oTukku are not preferred to denote 'paying back debt or loan'. The verbs pooTu-1 and iTu-2 denote depositing money in the bank. The use of iTu is restricted to written language.

avan       viiTTu      vari      celutt-in-aan/ kaTT-in-aan/oTukk-in-aan/aTai-tt-aan
he           house      tax      remit_past_he
'He paid the house tax.'

avan      vangkiy-il         paNam         celutt-in-aan/kaTT-in-aan/oTukk-in-aan/aTai-tt-aan
he       bank_loc           money         remit_past_he
'He deposited money in the bank.'

avan      pariiTcai-kku         paNam         celutt-in-aan/kaTT-in-aan/oTukk-in-aan/aTai-tt-aan
he         examination_dat         money         remit_past_he
'He paid the examination fees.'

avan      taan         vaangk-iy-a                 kaTan-ai         aTai-tt-aan
he         himself         receive_past_rp         loan_acc         pay_past_he
'He paid back the loan he had received.'

avan      vangkiy-il          paNam          pooT-T-aan/iT-T-aan
he          bank_loc           money           deposit_past_he
'He deposited money in the bank.'

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

6. Verbs of Pledging

aTakuvai, paNayamvai, aTamaanmvai, iiTuvai and ottivai are grouped here as they denote giving something to somebody as a token or as security for the payment of a debt or loan. These verbs are three place verbs: the giver (i.e. the pledger) is realized as a nominative phrase, which functions as the subject of the verbs, the entity which is transferred, which is realized as an accusative case phrase, which functions as the object of the verbs and the receiver which is realized as the postpositional phrase carrying the postposition iTam. iTam cannot be replaced dative ukku to denote the receiver. aTakuvai is a compound verb formed by the combination of the nominal element aTaku 'pledge' and the verb vai 'keep'. It expresses 'pledging movable property for money'. The money received can be realized as dative case phrase. paNayamvai is a compound verb formed by the combination of the nominal element paNayam 'pledge' and the verb vai 'keep'. It freely varies with aTakuvai in denoting the meaning 'pledge a moveable property for money'. It also expresses pledging something in a gambling and risking life to achieve something. aTakuvai cannot be used in the latter contexts. aTamanamvai, iiTuvai and ottivai are compounds formed by the combination of the nominal elements aTamaanam 'pledge' iiTu 'pledge' and otti 'pledge' with the verb vai 'keep'. aTamaanamvai and iiTuvai express 'pledging/mortgaging moveable properties like jewelry, etc and immovable properties like house, grooves, land, etc.' ottivai (which is a dialectal word) is different form aTamaanamvai and iiTuvai as its use is restricted to mortgaging of immovable properties like house, paddy field, etc. It is a special kind of mortgage (i.e. usufructuary mortgage) in which the mortgager gives the mortgagee the right to enjoy all the advantages derivable from the use of the mortgaged property.

avaL      tan      ndakiy-ai      aayiram      ruupaay-kku      avan-iTam      aTakuvai-tt-aaL/ paNayamvai-tt-aaL/aTamaanamvai-tt-aaL
she        her      jewelry         thousand         rupees_ dat        he_with      pledge_past_she
'She pledged the jewelry to him for thousand rupees.'

avan      tan      cott-ai      ellaam      paNayamvai-tt-uc      cuutaaT-in-aan
he           his      property      all      stake_past_par      gamble_past_he
'He gambled by staking all his property.'

avaL      tan      viiTT-ai      avan-iTam      aimpatu      aayiram      ruppaay-kku      aTamaanamvai-tt-aaL/ iiTuvai-tt-aaL
she      her      house      he_with                   fifty-thousand           rupees_dat      pledge_past_she
'She mortgaged her house to him for fifty thousand rupees.'

avaL      tan      vayal-ai      avan-iTam      aimpatu aayiram      ruppaay-kku      ottivai-tt-aaL
she       her      paddy field         he_with         fifty-thousand         rupees_dat         mortgage_past_she
'She mortgaged her paddy field for fifty thousand rupees.'

A few more kinds of transfer need mention here. The verbs used to denote such transfers are a noun plus verb combination. The verbs used in these combinations are koTu 'give' and viTu 'leave'.

1. kaTan koTu (kaTan 'loan') 'lend money'

ndaan      avaLukkup      pattu      ruupaay      kaTan      koTu-tt-een
I           she_dat               ten      rupees           loan      give_past_I
'I lent her ten rupees.'

2. iraval koTu ( iraval 'loan of a thing') 'lend a thing'

raatai      kamalaav-ukku      tan      ndakaiy-ai      iraval      koTu-tt-aaL
Radha      Kamala_dat      her      jewelry_acc      borrowing      give_past-she
'Radha lent her jewelry to Kamala.'

3. vaaTakaikku koTu/viTu (vaaTakai 'rent') 'let; hire out'

avaL      tan      viiTT-ai      kaNNan-ukku      vaaTakai-kku      koTu-tt-iru-kkiR-aaL/viT-T-iru-kkiR-aaL
she      her      house_acc      kannan_dat      rent_dat           give_past_par_ be_pres_she
'She has let her house for rent to Kannan.'

paaTTattiRku koTu/viTu (paaTTam 'contract of lease of land') 'lease'

This is a contract of lease in which the leaser gives his land for cultivation to the lessee, who in turn gives the leaser a portion of the yield as interest.

raatai      tan      vayal-ai                kaNNan-ukkup      paaTTattiR-ku      koTu-tt-irukkiR-aaL/viT-T-irukkiRaaL
Radha      her      paddy-field_acc      Kannan_dat      lease_dat           give_past_par_be_she
'Radha has leased her land to Kannan.'

kuttakaikku koTu/viTu (kuttakai 'contract of lease') 'lease'

This a contract of lease in which the leaser gives his groove, etc. for money to the lessee. The lessee enjoys the yield for certain period of time only.

avan      tan      toopp-ai      kuttakai-kku      koTu-tt-iru-kkiR-aan/viT-T-iru-kkiR-aan
he            his      groove      lease_dat           give_past_par_be_pres_he
'He has leased his groove.'

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of the verbs of pledging.

7. Verbs of Selling

The verb vil can be equated with English verb 'sell', which means 'give something in exchange for money'. It is capable of taking three arguments: the giver (i.e. seller), which is realized as a nominative phrase, which functions as the subject of the verb, the receiver, which is realized as a dative case phrase or a postpositional phrase carrying the postposition iTam and the entity transferred, which is realized as an accusative case phrase, which functions as the object of the verb. The difference between vil and koTu can be easily understood. koTu is a neutral or comprehensive verb whereas vil is a specific verb. The verb vil denotes 'selling', whereas koTu simply denotes 'giving'. vil presupposes 'getting money', whereas koTu does not. In some contexts koTu is preferred to vil, though getting money is also involved in the transfer. For example, issuing of tickets at counters, in busses, etc. is expressed by koTu but not by vil. This is because ticket is a token with the promise of a service and not a commodity. But selling postal stamps, lottery tickets, etc. is denoted by vil only. The difference discussed above can be noticed with the verbs of getting also. For example, getting ticket at a counter, in busses, etc. is denoted by vaangku 'buy' as well as eTu 'take'. But getting postal stamps is expressed by vaangku only. Buying lottery tickets can be expressed by vaangku as well as eTu.

avan      avaL-ukku      tan      viiTT-ai      viR-R-aan
he           she_dat          his      house_acc      sell_past_he
'He sold his house to her.'

8. Verbs of Spending

celavazi and celaviTu are grouped here as they are marked for the feature SPENDING. They imply paying out of money or an equivalent of money for something or in expectation of some return. They also denote exhausting or consuming resources possessed by the possessor. They are two place verbs (i.e. transitive verbs) taking two arguments, one denoting the spender, which is realized as a nominative phrase, which functions as the subject of the verb and another denoting the money or resource transferred (i.e. exhausted), which is realized as the accusative phrase, which functions as the object of the verb. The use of celaviTu is restricted to written language. celavazi is used in the intransitive sense also with the meaning 'be spent'.

avan      aayiram      ruupaay      celavazi-tt-aan/celaviT-T-aan
he      thousand      rupees       spend_past_he
'He spent thousand rupees.'

avaL      toTTiyiluLLa      taNNiir-ai      ellam      celavazittaaL/celaviTTaaL
she      tub_in_be_rp      water_acc      all           spend_past_past_she
'She exhausted the water in the tub.'

avan      kaiy-il-irundtu      paNam-ellaam      celavazi-ndt-u-viT-T-atu
he          hand_from           money_all      be spent_past_par_leave_past_it
'All the money in his hand is being spent.'

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

9. Verbs of Throwing

The verbs eRi, viicu, ey, viTu and eevu are grouped here. They are grouped here as they denote different ways by which an entity is propelled. They take a transferor (i.e. thrower or shooter or launcher), which is realized as a nominative phrase, which functions as the subject of the verbs and an entity, which is transferred, which functions as the object of the verbs. They do not take a receiver as one of their arguments; instead they can take a goal, which is realized as a locative phrase. They denote causing an object to move swiftly forward, sideways, upward, or downward by a propulsive movement (as of the arm) or by means of a propelling instrument or agency. eRi and viicu denote 'throwing of an object', ey 'shooting or discharging an arrow' and eevu 'discharging weapons and launching rockets, missiles, etc.'. The semantic area of viicu is wider than eRi. It overlaps with eRi while denoting 'throwing an object'. There are a number of contexts in which eRi cannot be used as a substitute for viicu. viicu implies more force than eRi. Because of this reason it is used as an adverb expressing the intensity of the force with which an object is thrown or made to swing. ey denotes shooting an arrow. It is used in written language only. In the spoken language viTu 'leave' is used in its place. eevu denotes discharging weapons, launching rockets and sending missiles, etc. viTu 'leave' is used in the spoken language to denote launching rockets.

avan      pandt-ai      eRi-ndt-aan
he           ball_acc      throw_past_he
'He threw the ball.'

avan      pandt-ai         viic-in-aan
he       ball_acc          throw_past_he
'He threw the ball.'

avan         pandt-ai        viici             eRi-ndt-aan
he             ball           throw_past_par       throw_past_he
'He threw the ball with more force.'

avan      maan      meel      ampu      ey-t-aan/viT-T-aan
he           deer      on      arrow      shoot_past_he
'He shot an arrow at a deer.'

amerikkaa      iraak      miitu      eevukaNaikaL-ai      eev-iy-atu/viT-T-atu
America           Iraq      on      missiles_ acc           launch_past_ _it
'America sent missiles to Iraq.'

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

10. Verbs of Pouring down

uuRRu, viTu and koTTu are grouped here as they denote pouring down a liquid or casting out solid materials from a container. They take a transferor, which is realized as a nominative phrase, which functions as the subject of the verbs and an entity, which is transferred, which is realized as an accusative case phrase, which functions as the object of the verbs. They can also take either a beneficiary, which is realized as a dative case phrase or a goal, which is realized as a locative phrase. uuRRu and viTu denotes pouring down a liquid only. They can take a beneficiary, which is realized as a dative case phrase or a goal (i.e. a location where something is pour down), which is realized as a locative phrase. To maintain this distinction uRRu has been divided into uuRRu-1 and uuRRu-2 and viTu has been divided into viTu-1 and viTu-2. koTTu denotes pouring out or casting out or emptying out the contents of a container in a location. The object of koTTu could be both solid as well as liquid materials. koTTu can also imply that the entity being poured out on somebody contemptuously or playfully or somewhere wastefully'.

avan      ceTikaL-ukkut      taNNiir      uuRR-in-aan/viT-T-aan
    he               plants_dat          water          pour_past_he
'He poured water to the plants.'

avaL        cooRR-il         kuzampu         uuRR-in-aaL/viT-T-aaL
she       boiled-rice_loc        broth       pour_past_she
'She poured broth on the boiled rice.'

avaL      eNNey-ait       taraiy-il      koTT-in-aaL
she       oil_acc         floor_loc         pour out_past_she
'She emptied the oil on the floor.'

avaL      kuppaiy-ai      kuppaittoTTiy-il      koTT-in-aaL
she       rubbish_acc          garbage_tub          pour out_past_she
'She emptied the rubbish in the garbage-tub.'

avaL      taNNiir-ai        avan       talaiy-il       koTT-in-aaL
she        water_acc         his        head_loc         empty_past_she
'She emptied the water on his head (playfully).'

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

11. Verbs of Dropping

The verbs pooTu and iTu are grouped here. They are transitive verbs. They denote dropping down of an object. The dropper is realized in nominative form, the dropped object in accusative form. The verb can take an adjunct denoting the location where the object is dropped.

avan           peenaav-aik         kiizee         pooT-T-aan
he            pen_acc                 floor         drop_past_he
'He dropped the pen on the floor.'

avaL         uNTiyalil         aindtu               ruupaay          ndaaNayam         pooT-T-aaL/iT-T-aal
she         hundi_loc         five                   rupees                coin              drop_past_she
'She dropped five rupees coin in the hundi.'

avaL         tan         pencil-ai         taraiy-il         pooT-T-aaL/iT-T-aaL
she             her       pencil_acc         floor_loc         drop_past_she
'She dropped her pencil on the floor.'

avaL         avan         kazutt-il         maalai         pooTTaaL/iT-T-aaL
she              his         neck         garland         put_past_she
'She put garland round his neck.'

It is used with different meanings when collocated with different nouns. Following are the collocations of pooTu with different nouns, which denotes transfer.

1. Drop

kaTitam pooTu (kaTitam 'letter') 'drop or send a letter'.
kuNTu pooTu (kuNTu 'bomb') 'drop bomb'.

2. Deposit

paNam pooTu (paNam 'money') 'deposit money (in bank); invest money (in business)'

3. Deliver

kuTTi pooTu (kuTTi 'offspring') 'give birth as animals'
muTTai pooTu (muTTai 'egg') 'lay egg'.

4. Defecate

caaNam pooTu (caaNam 'dung of cow, etc.') 'defecate as cow', etc.'
viTTai pooTu (viTTai 'dung of donkey, dog, etc.') defecate as donkey, dog, etc.'
pizukkai pooTu (pizukkai 'dung of sheep, rat, etc.') 'defecate as sheep, rat, etc.
eccam pooTu (eccam 'excrement of birds') 'defecate as birds, lizards, etc.'

5. Give

piccai pooTu (piccai 'alms') 'give alms'.
kaaNikkai pooTu (kaaNikkai 'offering to God') 'give money as an offer to God'.
ooTTu pooTu (ooTTu 'vote') 'cast vote'.
cooRu pooTu (cooRu 'boiled rice') 'serve or give boiled rice'.
kaTTaLai pooTu (kaTTaLai 'order') 'give order'.
matippeN pooTu (matippeN 'valuation mark') 'give valuation marks'

6. Sow

vittu pooTu (vittu 'seeds') 'sow seeds'.

The use of iTu is restricted to written language. It is primarily used with the meaning 'place; put'.

avan maalaiy-ai avaL kazutt-il iT-T-aan
he garland_acc her neck put_past_he
'He put the garland around her neck.'

Following are the collocations of iTu with different nouns:

1. Deposit

paNam iTu (paNam 'money') 'deposit money (in bank); invest money (in business)'

2. Deliver

muTTai iTu (muTTai 'egg') 'lay egg'.

3. Defecate

eccam iTu (eccam 'excrement of birds') 'defecate as birds, lizards, etc.'
caaNam iTu (caaNam 'dung of cow, etc.') 'defecate as cow, etc.'
pizukkai iTu (pizukkai 'dung of sheep, rat, etc.') 'defecate as sheep, rat, etc.

4. Give

piccai iTu (piccai 'alms') 'give alms'.
kaaNikkai iTu (N : kaaNikkai 'offering to God') 'give money as an offer to God'.
annam iTu (annam 'rice') 'serve rice'.
kaTTaLai iTu (kaTTaLai 'order') 'give order'.
aaNai iTu (aaNai order') 'give order'.

5. Sow

vittu iTu (vittu 'seed') 'sow'.

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

12. Verbs of Placing

The verb vai is primarily used with the meaning 'put; place; keep'. Apart form the placer and the object placed, the verbs can receive an adjunct denoting the place realized in locative form or a locative postpositional phrase carrying locative postposition.

avan        meejai         meel         puttakatt-ai         vai-tt-aan
he           table               on         book_acc         keep_past_he
'He placed the book on the table.'

The following are the collocations of vai with different nouns that denotes transfer.

Transferring

aTaku vai (aTaku 'pledge') 'pledge movable properties'
paNamayam (paNayam 'pledge') 'pledge movable properties; stake money or other things in gambling'.
aTamaanam vai (aTamaanam 'pledge') 'pledge movable and immovable properties'
iiTu vai (iiTu 'pledge') 'pledge immovable properties'.
otti vai (otti 'pledge') 'pledge immovable properties'.

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

13. Verbs of Leaving

The verb viTu and koNTuviTu are grouped here. They denote leaving something. They are transitive verbs. The leaver is realized as a nominative phrase, which functions as the subject of the verb and the entity which is left, is realized as an accusative phrase which functions as the object of the verb. viTu simply means 'leaving something', whereas koNTuviTu means 'leaving somebody somewhere'.

avan        avaL        kaiy-ai         viT-T-aan
he         her         hand_acc         leave_past_he
'He left her hand.'

avan        avaL-ai        viiTT-il         koNTuviTTaan
he         she_acc         house_loc         leave_past_he
'He took her home and left her there'

viTu gives various meanings depending on its collocations at various contexts.

1. leave a place, organization, person, job, etc.

avan        avaL-ai        viTTu        viT-T-aan
he        she_acc        having left         leave_past_he
'He left her.'

avan       veelaiy-ai        viTTu        viTTaan
he        job_acc        having left        leave_past_he
'He left the job.'

The verb viTu, while denoting 'leaving a place', generally comes as an adverb which is more or less a postposition for the locative-noun which precedes it and which an be equated with irundtu 'from'. Also viTu comes as adverb before the main verbs vilaku 'leave' and ndiingku 'leave'.

avan        kaTciy-ai         viTTu         vilak-in-aan/ndiink-in-aan
he         party_acc         leave_past_part         leave_past_he
'He left the party.'

2. abandon

avan         avaL-ai         kai         viT-T-aan
he         she_acc         hand        leave_past_he
'He abandoned her.'

3. lose

avan         tan         paNatt-ai         engkaiyoo         viT-T-u                viT-T-aan
He           his         money_acc         somewhere         leave_past_par         leave_past_he
He lost his money some where.'

4. leave behind

ndaan         peTTiy-ai         viiTT-il         viT-T-u         viT-T-een
I               box_acc         house_loc         leave_
'I left the box at home.'

5. miss

avan         rayil-ai         viTTu         viT-T-aan
he           train_acc         leave_past_par         leave_past_he
'He missed the train.'

7. leave hold.

avan         avaL kaiy-ai         viT-T-aan
he         her_hand         leave_past_he
'He left her hand.'

avan          tan         piTiy-ai         viT-T-aan
he          his         hold_acc         leave_past_he
'He left his hold.'

8. lease; let

avan         tan         vayal-aip         paaTTattiR-ku         viT-T-iru-kkiR-aan
He         his         paddy                 field_acc lease_dat         give_pastpar_be_past_he
'He has leased his paddy field'

avan         tan         toopp-aik         kuttakai-kku         viT-T-iru-kkiR-aan
he         his         groove_acc       lease_dat         leave_pastpar_be_pres_he
'He has leased his groove.'

avan         tan         viiTT-ai         vaaTakai-kku         viT-T-iru-kkiR-aan
he                his         house         rent_dat         leave_pastpar_be_pres_he
'He has rented out his home.'

The verb in this context is collocated with paaTTam 'a contract of lease', kuttakai 'a contract of lease' and vaaTakaikku 'for rent' to give the meaning 'lease; let'.

9. lay egg.

koozi      oru        muTTai         viT-T-atu
hen         one         egg         lay_past_it
'The hen laid an egg.'

10. pour

avaL         ceTi-kkut         taNNiir         viT_T_aaL
he                plant_dat         water         pour_past_she
'She poured water for the plant.'

uuRRu 'pour' can also be used in this context.

11. shed tears

avaL         kaNNiir         viT-T-aaL
she         tear         leave_past_she
'She shed tears.'

vaTi 'flow down' can also be used here.

12. send

ndaan         avan-ukku         oru         ndooTTiicu         viTTeen
I                 he_dat                 one         notice         leave_past_I
'I sent him a notice.'

avaL         avan-ukkut         tuutu         viT-T-aaL
she          he_dat           message         leave_past_she
'She sent him a message.'

amerikkar         candtiran-ukku         eevukaNai         viT-T-aarkaL
America               moon_dat                rocket         leave_past_they
'The American sent rocket to moon.'

anuppu 'send' can also be used in this context.

13. shoot an arrow

avan avaL meel ampu viT-T-aan 'He shot an arrow at her.'

ey 'shoot an arrow' can also be used in this context.

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

14. Verbs of Losing

The verbs tolai, kaLai, kooTTaiviTu, paRikoTu and iza and are grouped as they denote losing something. They can be further sub-grouped into two depending upon whether the loser or the entity that is lost functions as the subject of the verb. tolai and kaLai in their intransitive sense denote the loss of an entity possessed by somebody. The entity undergoing transfer is realized as a nominative phrase and it functions the subject of the verbs. In their transitive sense, the loser is the subject of the verbs, which is realized as a nominative phrase, and the entity undergoing transfer, which is realized as an accusative phrase, functions as the object of the verbs. The transitive tolai is used with the meaning 'lose or squander away ones money, property, etc.' Though tolai as a transitive verb can be said be synonymous with the transitive kaLai in some of its contexts, the intentionality or deliberateness on the part of loser in losing the entity possessed by him realized in tolai is not realized in kaLai. kaLai simply means losing a thing unintentionally or accidentally, especially the portable belongings. kaLai denotes removing ones dress, removing unwanted things from something, etc also. kaLai is not used in the sense of losing non-portable belongings (i.e. movable properties). kaLai and tolai may imply the careless on the part of the loser in losing their possession. kooTTaiviTu, paRikoTu and iza function only as transitive verbs. kooTTaiviTu denotes losing something due to the negligence of the loser. paRikoTu denotes being robbed of ones possession. In the case of paRikoTu and iza, the part played by the gainer in getting the object (by snatching, stealing or by gambling) can be very much felt. paRikoTu and iza may imply that the possessor is being deprived of his possession by unfair means (initiated by the gainer). iza is used only in the written language. It is used to denote losing ones kith and kin, property, body parts, consciousness, respect, etc. While tolai and kaLai denote blamable situation, paRikoTu and iza denote pitiable situation.

avan         peenaa         tolai-ndt-u-viT-T-atu/kaLai-ndt-u-viT-T-atu
his              pen              lose_past_par_leave_past_it
'His pen is lost.'

avan         tan         peenaav-ait         tolai-tt-u viT-T-aan/kaLai-ndt-u viT-T-aan
he              his         pen_acc         lose_past_par_leave_past_it
'He lost his pen.'

avan      tan         cott-ai         ellaam        tolai-tt-u viT-T-aan
he            his        property        all         loose_past_par_leave_past_it
'He exhausted all his property.'

*avan tan cott-ai ellaam kaLai-ndt-u viT-T-aan

avan        ariciy-il         kiTa-ndt-a        kall-ai        ellaam         poRukk-ik kaLai-ndt-aan
he        rice_loc       lie_past_rp        stone_acc        all        pick up_past_par get rid_past_he
'He picked up the stones from the rice and got rid of them.'

avaL        tan         aaTaikaL-aik         kaLai-ndt-aaL
she         her         dresses_acc         strip off_past_she
'She stripped off (or got rid of) her dress.'

avan        tiruTarkaL-iTam         tan         paNatt-aip         paRikoTu-tt-aan/iza-ndt-aan
he        thieves_with                      his         money         lose_past_he
'He is deprived on his money by the thieves.'

avan        tan        uTamaikaL-aip        paRikoTu-tt-aan/iza-ndt-aan
he                his        belongings_acc lose_past_he
'He lost his belongings.'

avan        tan        cottai        paRikoTu-tt-aan/iza-ndt-aan
he        his        property_acc        lose_past_he
'He lost his property.'

avan        tan         kuzandtaiy-aip         paRikoTu-tt-aan/iza-ndt-aan
he         his                 child_acc        lose_past_he
'He lost his child.'

avan         tan        manaiviy-ai         paRikoTu-tt-aan/iza-ndt-aan
he          his               wife_acc        lose_past_he
'He lost his wife.'

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

15. Verbs of Abandoning

tuRa is denotes 'abandoning of property, kith and kin, etc.' There is neither a receiver nor a goal to which the object is directed (as the object is just abandoned).

avan        tan                condtapandtankaL-ai         tuRa-ndt-aan
he             his                 kith and kin                   abandon_past_he
'He abandoned his kith and kin.'

16. Verbs of gainging

The verbs denoting buying, receiving, collecting, taking, earning, adopting, snatching, plucking, stealing and getting are included here. The diagnostic features that distinguish these verbs from each other are listed below.

1. +ACTIVE RECEIVER vs. -ACTIVE RECEIVER: The verbs vaangku, peRu, vacuuli, miiTTu, cuviikari, cuviikaaram eTu, piTungku, paRi, koy, aay, uruvu, tiruTu, kaLavaaTu, koLLaivaTi, cuuRaiyaaTu, apakari and kavar are marked for the plus feature. kiTai, kiTTu, cikku, akappaTu, maaTTu and piTipaTu are marked for the minus feature.
2. +ILLEGAL vs. -ILLEGAL: The verbs tiruTu, kaLavaaTu, koLLaiyaTi, cuuRaiyaaTu, apakari and kavar are marked for the feature +ILLEGAL.
3. +FORCE vs. -FORCE: The verbs piTungku, paRi, koy, aay and uruvu imply a force with which the receiver takes the object. So they are marked by the feature +FORCE.
4. +ADOPT vs. -ADOPT: The plus feature marks the verbs tatteTu, cuviikari and cuviikaaram eTu.
5. +EARN vs. -EARN: The verbs campaati and iiTTu marked for the feature '+EARN'.
6. +GIVER vs. -GIVER: The verbs vaangku, peRu, vacuuli, miiTTu and tiruppu imply a giver who gives the object and so are marked for the plus feature. The verbs eTu, poRukku, aLLu, vaaru and kooru do not imply a giver and so are marked for the minus feature.

The verbs aTai, which denotes 'getting a present, etc.', piTi, which denotes 'catching', and eel, which denotes 'accepting', are included here because of their close relation with the other verbs, grouped here.

17. Verbs of Buying, Receiving, etc.

The verbs vaangku, peRu, vacuuli, miiTTu and tiruppu are grouped here. They are transitive verbs. They are capable of taking three arguments, one denoting the receiver, which is realized as a nominative phrase, which functions as subject of the verb, the entity, which is received, which is realized as an accusative phrase, which functions as object of the verb and the giver (i.e. source) which is realized as the postpositional phrase carrying the postposition iTamirundtu. The verb vaangku is a neutral and a comprehensive term, which denotes 'getting, receiving and buying'. vaangku while denoting buying implies exchange of money (realized in dative form). peRu denotes getting a present, a loan, degree, strength, respect, punishment, success, fame, name, etc. and its use is restricted to written language. vacuuli denotes 'collecting dues like rent, fee, tax, etc.' miiTu denotes redeeming a person from bondage, from captivity, or a thing from pawn or from neglect or deterioration. tiruppu is synonymous with miiTTu while denoting the meaning 'redeeming a thing from pawn'. tiruppu is a dialectal usage.

avan              avaL-iTam-irundtu         peenaa        vaangk-in-aan
he                       she_loc_from         pen                 buy_past_he
'He got a pen from her.'

avan           kaTaiy-il-irundtu      pattu           ruupaay-kku       oru      peenaa        vaangk-in-aan
he           shop_loc_from                 ten           rupees_dat     one       pen           buy_past_he
'He bought a pen from the shop for ten rupees.'

avan       oru        aanaiyaip         paricaakap         peR-R-aan
he       one        elephant_acc           presen_adv         receive_past_he
'He got an elephant as a present.'

avan        paTTam         peR-R-aan
he         degree         receive_past_he
'He got a degree.'

avaL        oru        aaN        kuza-ndt-ai         peR-R-aaL
she         one         male         child_acc         deliver_past_she
'She gave birth to a male child.'

avan         avaL-iTam-irundtu         vaaTakai         vacuuli-tt-aan
he         she_loc_from                       rent         collect_past_he
'He collected rent from her.'

avaL         avaniTam-irundtu         tan         ndakaikaL-ai         miiT-T-aaL/tirup-in-aaL
she               he_from                 her         jewelry_acc         redeem_past_she
'She redeemed her jewelry form him.'

avarkaL         kolaiyaaLikaL-iTam-irundtu           kuzandtaikaL-ai         miiT-T-anar
they                 murderers_place_from                   children_acc         redeem_past_they'
'They redeemed the children from the murderers.'

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

18. Verbs of taking, etc.

The verbs grouped here are eTu, poRukku, aLLu, vaaru and kooru as they denote taking something from somewhere. They take a receiver (taker) realized as a nominative phrase, which functions as the subject of the verb and the entity, which is transferred, which is realized as an accusative phrase which functions as the object of the verb. They can take a source realized as a postpositional phrase carrying the postposition irudntu. eTu is a general as well as a neutral term, which denotes 'taking'. With reference to physical things it may imply the movement of a hand to get hold of something or it may imply, with reference to physical as well as immaterial or intangible things, the methods by means of which one gets possession of or control over something. It also expresses removal of unwanted things. The meanings of eTu associated with transfer are listed below.

1. take

avaL         meejaiy-in         meel         irundtu         peenaav-ai         eTu-tt-aaL
she         table_obl         on         from         pen         take_past_she
'She took the pen on the table'

2. pail out water

avaL         kiNaRR-il-irundtu         taNNiir         eTu-tt-aaL
she         well_loc_from         water         take_past_she
'She pailed water from the well'

3. buy

avaL         cinimaav-ukku         TikkeTTu         eTu-tt-aaL
she         cinema_dat         ticket         buy_past_she
'She took (i.e. bought) ticket for cinema'

avaL         paricu         ciiTTu         eTu-tt-aaL
she         lottery         ticket         take_past_she
'She bought lottery ticket'

4. select or pick up persons; recruit

avarkaL         iraaNuvattiR-ku         aaL         eTu-kkiR-aarkaL
they         army_dat         persons         take_pres_they
'They are selecting persons for the army'

avan         peRRoor         avan-ukku         puunaav-il-iruntu         peN         eTu-tt-iru-kkiR-aarkaL
his         parents         he_dat         Poona_loc_from         bride         take_pres_par_be_pres_it
'His parents have selected a bride for him from Poona'

5. hire; rent; lease.

ndaan         andta         viiTT-ai         vaaTakai-kku         eTu-tt-iru-kkiR-een
I         that         house-acc         rent_dat         take_past_par_be_pres_I
'I have rented that house'

avaL         anta         ndilatt-ai         raaman-iTam-irundtu         otti-kku         eTu-tt-iru-kkiR-aaL
she         that         land_acc         Raman_loc_from         lease_dat         take_past_par_be_pres_she
'She has leased that land from Raman'

ndaan         andta         toopp-ai         raataiy-iTam-irundtu         kuTTakai-kku         eTu-tt-iru-kkiR-een
I         that         groove_acc         Radha_loc_from         lease_dat         take_past_par_be_pres_I
'I have leased that groove from Radha'

The verb eTu in this context collocates with vaaTakaikku 'for rent', ottikku 'for lease' and kuttakaikku 'for lease' to give the meaning 'hire; rent; lease'.

6. Remove unwanted things like dirt, weeds, plants, trees, beard, moustache, hair, etc.

avan         kaat-il         irundta         azukkai         eTu-tt-aan
he         ear_loc         be_past_rp         wax         take_past_he
'He removed the dirt from the ear'

avaL         vayal-il         kaLai         eTu-tt-aaL
she         paddy-field_loc         weeds         take_past_she
'She removed the weeds from the paddy-field'

avan         viiTT-in         munpu         ndi-nR-iru-ndt-a         maratt-ai         eTu-tt-aan
he         house_abl         front         stand_past_rp         tree_acc         take_past_he
'He removed the tree which was standing in front of the house'

avan         tan         taaTiyum         miicaiyum         eTu-tt-u viT-T-aan
he         his         beard         moustache         take_past_par leave_past_he
'He has removed his beard and moustache'

7. extract oil, juice, butter, metal, etc. from the concerned materials.

avan         eLL-il-irundtu         eNNey         eTu-tt-aan
he         sesame         seeds_loc_form         take_past_he
'He extracted oil from the sesame seeds'

avaL         tayir-il-irundtu         veNNey         eTu-tt-aaL
she         curd_loc_form         butter         take_past_she
'She extracted butter from the curd'

8. tattu/cuviikaaram eTu (N : tattu/cuviikaaram 'adoption') 'adopt'

avan         anta         kuzandtaiy-ai         tattu/cuviikaaram         eTu-tt-aan
he         that         child                         adoption                         take_past_he
'He adopted that child'

9. piccai eTu (N : piccai 'alms') 'beg'

avan         teruvil         piccai         eTu-kkiR-aan
he         street_loc         alms         take_pres_he
'He is begging in the street'

10. terindteTu ('having known-take') 'select'

avan         avaLait         tan         manaivi-yaayt         teri-ndt-eTu-tt-aan
he         she_acc         his         wife-adv         select_past_par_take_past_he
'He selected her as his wife'

teerndteTu ('having selected-take') 'select; elect'.

avarkaL         avan-ait         tangkaL         talaivan-aayt         teer-ndt-eTu-tt-aarkaL
they         he_acc                 their         leader_adv         select_past_par_take_past_they
'They selected him as their leader'

The verbs poRukku, aLLu, vaaru and kooru imply specific features. Picking one by one is expressed by the verb poRukku. poRukku differs from eTu in the sense that the selection is always from many or a larger quantity. aLLu, vaaru and kooru denote taking something in mass. The entities, which funtion as object of poRukku, are countable nouns whereas the enities, which functions as objects of aLLu, vaaru and kooru, are mass nouns. They may imply using of implements such as spade, shovel, etc. vaaru takes only solid materials as its objects whereas aLLu and kooru takes both solid as well as liquid materials as their objects. kooru denotes taking a mass of liquid in a container by a spoon, etc. and taking a mass of solid materials by implements like a spade, shovel, etc. aLLu and vaaru denote taking a mass of solid material by hand also. vaaru is synonymous with aLLu in certain contexts. The semantic area of vaaru partially overlaps with aLLu. aLLu denotes 'taking collectively, taking a handful, scooping up, taking in a sweep and gather in a container, taking or scooping up water with both hands'.

avan         kall-aip         poRukk-in-aan
he         stone_acc         pick up_past_he
'He picked up the stones one by one'

avan         caaNi         poRukk-in-aan
he         cow-dung         pick_past_he
'He took cow-dung from here and there'

avan         maNal-ai         aLL-i/vaar-i         eRi-ndt-aan
he         sand_acc         scoop_up_past_past         throw_past_he
'He took a handful of sand and threw it away'

avan         kuuTaiy-il         maNal-ai         aLL-in-aan/vaar-in-aan
he         basket_loc         sand         gather_past_he
'He gathered the sand in the basket'

avaL         kiNaRR-il-irundtu         taNNiir         koor-in-aaL
she         well_loc from                 water         take_past_she
'She took water from the well'

avan         maNal-aik         koor-ik                 kuuTaiy-il         pooT-T-aan
he         sand_acc         scoop up_past_par         basket_loc         put_past_he
'He took the sand (by a spade) and put it in the basket'

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

19. Verbs of earning

The verbs campaati and iiTTu are grouped here. campaati is used to denote 'earning money, name, fame, etc.' iiTTu is used in the written language to express 'earning or collecting money'. The verbs take a receiver (i.e. earner) realized as a nominative phrase which functions as the subject of the verb and the entity, which is, transferred (i.e. earned) which functions as the object of the verb. Generally the source is not mentioned, but if mentioned, is realized as a postpositional phrase carrying the postposition irundtu.

avan         tupaaiy-il-irundtu         paNam         campatti-tt-u         tan     viiTT-ukku    anuppu-kiR-aan
he         Dubai_loc_from         money         earn_past_par         his    house_dat         send_pres_he
Having earned money from Dubai, he sends it to his house.'

ndaan         paNam         campaati-tt-een
I         money         earn_past_I
'I earned money.'

avan         poruL         iiTT-in-aan
he         money         earn_past_he
'He earned money.'

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

20. Verbs of Adopting

tatteTu, cuviikari and cuviikaaram eTu can be grouped here. All these verbs mean 'adopt'. cuviikari is used only in the written language; tatteTu and cuviikaaram eTu are used in the spoken language also.

avan      anta         kuzandtaiy-ai         tatteTu-tt-aan/cuviikari-tt-aan/cuviikaaram eTu-tt-aan
he        that         child                 adopt_past_he
'He adopted that child.'

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

21. Snatching, plucking, removing, etc.

The verbs grouped here are piTungku, paRi, koy, aay, uruvu and kazaRRu as they denote removing or taking something from somebody or somewhere by force or by pulling. The take a receiver (remover), which is, realized as a nominative phrase which functions as the subject of the verb and the entity, which is transferred (removed entity) which is realized as an accusative phrase, which functions as the object of the verb. They can take a source, which is realized as a postpositional phrase carrying the postposition irundtu. piTungku denotes snatching, extorting and uprooting plants, hair, teeth, etc. paRi denotes snatching something from somebody, plucking fruits, flowers, leaves, etc. and removing weeds. koy denotes 'plucking flowers, leaves, etc and removing head from the body'. aay denotes removing leaves from stalks, twigs, etc.. uruvu denotes 'drawing out or pulling out something from a pile, bundle, sheath, etc. and stripping off leaves from a stalk, twig, etc.'. The use of koy is restricted to written language. piTungku cannot be used in the sense of plucking fruits, flowers, leaves, etc. paRi cannot be used denote uprooting plants, hair, etc. Of course, it can be used to denote removing weeds from paddy field.

avan         avaL-iTam-irundtu         paNatt-ai         piTungk-in-aan
he         she_from                 money_acc         snatch_past_he
'He snatched the money from her'

avan         ceTiy-ai         piTungk-in-aan
he         plant_acc         pluck_past_he
'He uprooted the plant'

avan         pall-ai         piTungk-in-aan
he         tooth         uproot_past_he
'He uprooted the tooth'

avan         avaL-iTam-irundtu         paNatt-aip         paRi-tt-aan
he         she_loc_from                 money         snatch_past_he
'He snatched the money from her'

avaL         maratt-il-irundtu         maangkaay         paRi-tt-aaL
she         tree_from                 mango         pluck_past_she
'She plucked the mango from the tree.'

avan         vayal-il         kaLai         paRi-tt-aan
he         paddy-field         weed         pluck_past_he
'He removed weeds from the paddy-field'

avaL         ceTiy-il-irundtu         oru         puuv-ai         koy-t-aaL
she         plant_from                 one         flower_acc         pluck_past_she
'She plucked a flower from the plant'

kolaiyaaLi         avaL         talaiy-aik         koy-t-aan
murderer         her         head_acc         remove_past_he
'The murderer removed her head'

avaL         kopp-il-irundtu         ilaikaL-ai         aay-ndt-aaL
she         branch_loc_from         leaves_acc         remove_past_she
'She removed leaves from the twig'

avan         kaTT-il-irundtu         puttakam     onR-ai                 uruvinaan
he         bundle_from                 book         one_acc         take out_past_he
'He took out a book from the books piled up there'

avan         uRaiy-il-irundtu         vaaL-ai         uruv-in-aan
he         sheath_from         sword_acc         take         out_past_he
'He took out the sword from the sheath'

avan         avaL         viral-il-irundtu         mootiratt-ai         uruv-in-aan
he         her         finger_from         ring_acc         take         out_past_he
'He removed the ring from her finger by a pull'

avaL         andta         kaamp-iliru-ndt-u         ilaikaL-ai         uruv-in-aaL
she         that         stalk_loc         be_past_rp         leaves_acc         remove_past_she
'She stripped off the leaves from the stalk'

avaL         uuciy-il-irundtu         nduul-ai         uruv-in-aaL
she         needle_loc_from         sting_acc         pull         out_past_she
'She removed the string from the needle'

avan         avaL         kazutt-il-irundtu         maalaiy-aik         kazaRR-in-aan
he         her         neck_loc_form         garland_acc         remove_past_he
'He removed the garland from her neck'

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

22. Verbs of Stealing, etc

tiruTu, kaLavaaTu, apakari, kavar, koLLaiyaTi and cuuRaiyaaTu are put together as they denote unlawful possession of something from somebody or somewhere. They take three arguments (participants), the receiver, the loser and the entity, which is lost. The receiver, which is realized in nominative form functions as the subject of the verb and the entity of loss, which is realized in accusative form, functions as the object of the verb. The loser is realized as a postpositional phrase (marked by the postposition iTamirundtu). tiruTu, kaLavaaTu, apakari and kavar denote stealing. The use of apakari and kavar are restricted to written language. The verb koLLaiyaTi denotes robbing, which implies taking of personal property or valuable form another or form a place in a felonious manner. cuuRaiyaaTu denotes plundering, which implies robbery on an extensive scale or a ravaging or pillaging of a territory or a despoliation by force. In case of koLLaiyaTi and cuuRaiyaaTu, the loser can be a place or person and can be realized in accusative from. Idiomatically koLLaiyaTi means 'gain more money in business'.

avan   avaL-iTam-irundtu         paNatt-ait  tiruT-in-aan/apakari-tt-aan/kavar-ndt-aan/ kaLavaaT-in-aan
he         she_loc_from         money_acc         steal_past_he
'He stole money from her'

avan         vazippookkarkaL-iTam-irundtu         paNatt-aik         koLLaiyaTi-tt-aan
he         travellers_loc_from                         money_acc         plunder_Past_he
'He robbed money from the travellers.'

avan         vazippookkarakaL-aik         koLLaiyaTi-tt-aan
he         travellers_acc                 rob_past_he
'He robbed the travellers'

avan         andta         uur-aik         koLLaiyaTi-tt-aan
he         that         village_acc         plunder_past_he
'He plundered that village'

avan         viyaapaaratt-il         koLLaiyaTi-kkiR-aan
he         business_loc         rob_pres_he
'He is robbing (people) in the business'

avarkaL         kaTaikaLaic         cuuRaiyaaT-in-aan
they                 shops_acc         loot_past_he
'They plundered the shops'

avarkaL         andta         uuraic         cuuRaiyaaT-in-ar
they                 that         village         loot_past_he
'They plundered that village'

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

23. Verbs of Getting

aTai and perRu are grouped here as they denote getting something from somebody or somewhere. They are transitive verbs. They take a receiver, which is realized as a nominative phrase, which functions as the subject of the verbs, a giver/source, which is realized as a postpositional phrase (carrying the postposition iTamirundtu/ilirundtu) and an entity, which is transferred, which is realized as an accusative case phrase and which functions as the object of the verb. peRu and aTai are synonyms in this context.

avan     aracar-iTam-irundtu      oru      yaanaiy-ai     paric-aaka           aTai-ndt-aan/peR-R-aan
he           king_place_from           one           elephant_acc           present_adv get_past_he
'He got an elephant as a present from the king'

avaL     vangkiy-il-irundtu           oru           laTcam           rupaay           kaTan-aakap           peR-R-aaL
she           bank_loc_from           one           lakh           money           loan_adv           get_past_she
'She got one lakh rupees as loan form the bank'

avan           avaLai           manaiviy-aay           aTai-ndt-aan/peR-R-aan
he           she_acc           wife_adv           get_past_he
'He got her as his wife'

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

24. Verb of Catching

piTi denotes 'catching; getting possession or control of something'. Depending on its collocation with nominal elements, it gives different meaning. The contexts involving transfer are listed below. piTi takes a receiver realized as a nominative case phrase, which functions as the subject of the verb, source, which is realized as a postpositional phrase (carrying the postposition irundtu), and the entity, which is transferred realized as an accusative case phrase, which functions as the object of the verb.

1. catch a physical object.

avan           kaLLan-aip           piTi-tt-aan
he           thief_acc           catch_past_he
'He caught the thief'

avan           kuLatt-il-irundtu           miin           piTi-tt-aan
he           pond_locd_form           fish           catch_past_he
'He caught fish form the pond'

2. catch hold of

avan           avaL           kaiy-aip           piTi-tt-aan
he           her           hand_acc           catch           hold_past_he
'He caught hold of her hand'.

3. capture a place

avan           andta           ndaaTT-aip           piTi-tt-aan
he           that           country_acc           capture_past_he
'He captured that country'

4. hire.

avan           aaTToo           rikSaa           piTi-tt-u           paLLikkuuTattiR-kuc           ce-nR-aan
he           auto           rickshaw           hire_past_par           school_dat           go_past_he
'He hired an auto-rickshaw and went to school

5. catch bus, taxi, train, etc. to travel.

avan           eTTu           maNi           rayil-aip           piTi-tt-u           puunaa           va-ndt-aan
he           eight           o'clock           train_acc           catch_past_par           Poona           come_past_he
'He caught the eight O'clock train and came to Poona'

6. take something sold by an auction

avan           andta           kaar-ai           eelam           piTi-tt-aan
he           that           car-acc           auction           catch_past-he
'He bought the car in an auction'

7. take by lease.

avan           andtat           toopp-aik           kuttakai-kkup           piTi-tt-aan
he           that           groove_acc           lease_dat           catch_past_he
'He leased that groove'

8. buy a cow, ox, buffalo, etc.

avan           ainduuRu           ruupaay-kku           oru           pacu           piTi-tt-aan
he           five-hundred           rupees_dat           one           cow           buy_past_he
'He bought a cow for five hundred rupees'

9. collect or catch water, etc. pouring out from a tap; catch rainwater.

avaL           vaaLiy-il           taNNiir           piTi-tt-aaL
she           bucket_loc           water           catch_past_she
'She collected water in the bucket'

10. withhold a part of payment.

avan           avaL           campaLatt-il           nduuRu           ruupaay-aip           piTi-tt-aan
he                     she           salary_loc           hundred           rupees           catch_past_he
'He withheld hundred rupees from her salary'

piTi can be considered as the transitive counter part of verbs of being caught like cikku, akappaTu, maaTTu and piTipaTu. But its range of use is much wider than those verbs.

miin         valaiy-il         cikk-iy-atu/akappaT-T-atu/maaTT-iy-atu/piTipaT-T-atu
fish         net_loc         be caught_past_it
'The fish is being caught in the net'

avan         miin         piTi-tt-aan
he         fish         catch_past_he
'He caught the fish'

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

25. Verbs of Getting, Being Caught, etc.

The verbs grouped here are kiTai, kiTTu, cikku, akappaTu, maaTTu and piTipaTu. They are intransitive verbs. The entity, which is transferred and which is realized as a nominative case phrase is the subject. These verbs do not take an active receiver (realized in nominative form). The receiver is realized either as a dative case phrase or as a postpositional phrase marked for iTam. In the case of kiTai and kiTTu, the receiver is realized as dative case phrase. kiTTu is synonymous with kiTai. But the use of kiTTu is restricted to written language. kiTTu is also used with the meaning 'be got; be obtained'

avan-ukku         avaL-iTam-irudntu         pattu         ruupaay         kiTai-tt-atu/kiTT-iy-atu
he_dat                 she_place_from         ten         rupees         be got_past_it
'He got ten rupees from her'

avan-ukku         veelai         kiTai-tt-atu/kiTT-iy-atu
he_dat                 job         be got_past_it
'He got a job'

avan-ukku         taNTanai         kiTai-tt-atu/ kiTT-iy-atu
he_dat                   punishment         be got_past_it
'He got punishment'

In the case of cikku, akappaTu, maaTTu and piTipaTu also the subject, which is realized in nominative form, is the entity transferred (i.e. that which is caught). These verbs are capable of taking a locative phrase, which could be a human/animate benefactor/receiver (marked for the locative postposition iTam) or an inanimate trap (marked for locative case suffix il). The verbs cikku, akappaTu, maaTTu and piTipaTu generally imply 'trapping' and thus differ from kiTai and kiTTu. cikku denotes 'being entangled, being trapped, being ensnared and being caught'. akappaTu, maaTTu and piTipaTu are synonymous with cikku in a number of contexts. The semantic area of akappaTu is wider than cikku.

avaL         avan-iTam         cikk-in-aaL/akappaT-T-aaL/maaTT-in-aaL/piTipaT-T-aaL
she                 he_place         catch_past_she
'She was caught by him'

cingkam         valaiy-il         cikk-iy-atu/akappaT-T-atu/maaTT-iy-atu
lion         net_loc         be caught_past_it
'The lion is caught in the net'

eli         poRiy-il         cik-kiy-atu/akappaT-T-atu/maaTT-iy-atu
rat         trap_loc         catch_past_it
'The rat is caught in the trap'

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

26. Verb of accept

eel denotes 'accepting something'. It is generally followed by the benefactive auxiliary verb koL. It is a transitive verb. The acceptor, which is realized in nominative form functions as the subject of the verb and the entity, which is accepted and which is realized in accusative from functions as the object of the verb. It can take a giver realized in ablative form marked by iTamirundtu. It can take an adverb formed by adding aay (an adverbial formative suffix) to a noun denoting a kinship relation or a social relation.

avar         avaL-iTam-irundtu         viNNappatt-ai         eeRRaar
he         she_place_from         application_acc         accept_past_he
'He accepted the application from her'

avan         avaL         ta-ndt-a         paric-ai         eeR-R-u-kkoN-T-aan
he         she         give_past_rp         presentation         accept_past_par_possess_past_he
'He accepted the present given by her'

avan         raataiy-ai         manaiviy-aay         eeR-R-u-kkoN-T-aan
he         Radha_acc         wife_adv         accept_past_par_possess _past_he
'He accepted Radha as his wife'

The following table gives the syntactic and semantic features of this group.

27. Conclusion

The verbs of transfer are typically three place verbs, which take a giver, receiver and the entity, which is transferred as the arguments. Some of them take the three arguments, some of them two and a few of them only one. The meanings of the verbs range form giving to losing and receiving to gaining. Tamil display a well- organized system of transfer verbs, which make it possible to express different kinds of transfer.

REFERENCES

Annamalai, E. 1975. 'The Semantics of verbs vaa and poo in Tamil'. Indian Linguistics 36.3:212-16.

Dixon, R.M.W. 1971. 'A Method of Semantic Description'. In: Steinberg, D.D. and Jakobovits, L.A. (ed.). Semantics. New York: Cambridge University Press.

Leherer, A. 1974. Semantic Fields and Lexical Structure. London: North Holland Publishing Company.

Lyons, J. 1963. Structural Semantics. Oxford: Blackwell.

----------. 1975. Semantics. (Vol. 1). New York: Cambridge University Press.

Nida, E.A. 1975a. Componential of meaning: An Introduction to Semantic Structure. The Hague: Mouton.

--------------1975b. Exploring Semantic Structures. Munchen: Wilhelm, Finkverlag.

Rajendran, S. 1978. Syntax and Semantics of Tamil Verbs. Ph.D. Thesis. Poona: University of Poona.

---------------- 1981. 'Semantic Structure of Tamil Verbs'. In: 13th All India Tamil Teacher's Association Conference aayvukkovai Vol 2.305-310.

---------------- 1983. 'Coming and Going in Tamil' in To Greater Heights. Mysore: CIIL. 83-118.

----------------2001. taRkaalattamiz coRkaLanjciyam (Thesaurus for Modern Tamil). Thanjavur: Tamil University.

----------------2002. 'Syntax and Semantics of Directional Verbs of Movement in Tamil.' Language in India www.languageinindia.com 2 : 5.

Ullmann, S. 1957. The principles of Semantics. Oxford: Basil Blackwell.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

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