LANGUAGE IN INDIA

LANGUAGE AND TERRORISM

Lakhan Gusain, Ph.D.

1. Introduction

Progress also brings problems. As the world makes progress, so emerge the problems. Though the problems were there, as the world was, we could not know about them for the reason of not having enough tools to identify them. The past century has clearly seen profound geopolitical, economic, social, and technological changes. With the changes the concerns about security have also grown. While the particular security issues have always been present, they have leveraged these global changes to support operations now widespread and unchecked enough, with sufficient technological and economic power. These pose a strategic threat to the interests of nations around the world. There is even speculation that these phenomena will eventually converge organizationally into a global problem, operating as a virtual political entity in its own right and challenging the very existence of nations.

2. Terrorists Attack Where We Least Expect

There have been times in man's history where he behaved in barbaric terms. Part of the process of civilization is learning from the past. It is the same with terrorism. Terrorism takes the opposite approach. It is completely uncivilized and it targets civilians by design, the more the merrier. Terrorists attack where we least expect, with no warning, attempting to demoralize and terrify the people, thus weakening the country. They attempt to send a message with the attack.

All of humankind is directly and indirectly victimized by terrorism. Although the West, Israel, Afghanistan, and India are the primary targets, we as citizens of the world are all affected by acts of terrorism.¹

The struggle against terrorism is not a new one. However, the audacity and magnitude of the disaster of September 11, 2001 at Pentagon and World Trade Center shocked the world as never before. Immediately afterwards there was a general recognition that terrorism is a global problem and requires the engagement of all countries to find solutions.

3. Network of Terrorism

The term terrorism means premeditated, politically motivated violence perpetrated against noncombatant targets by subnational groups or clandestine agents, usually intended to influence an audience.² Terrorism is a political crime, and, by definition, differs from other crimes in that the beneficiary and the perpetrator are frequently different people. In addition, terrorist groups organize quite differently-in operations and logistics. There are significant differences between terrorist and other common criminal groups in objectives and methods. The purpose of terrorism is to terrorize people either psychologically or physically, and to deprive them of their rights and liberties and to replace them with fear.

In the case of terrorism, however, there is no common definitional ground between the perpetrator and the victim. The victim, if he stays alive, shouts that he has been struck by terrorism. The perpetrator, if he has the courage of admitting his deed, boasts that he is doing something else: waging holy war.

To call something a holy war mobilizes ethnic or religious sentiment behind a common objective, justifies the use of terrorist activities as the means to achieve this objective, amplifies whatever existing resentment, prejudice, or hatred may exist toward the people or peoples one is waging war against, and through its call to patriotism, moves people to make personal sacrifice for the so-called greater good.

4. Language and Information

Language is the most powerful, convenient and permanent means and form of communication. It serves to establish sound-meaning correlation, so that messages can be sent by the exchange of overt acoustic signals. Language is a tool and can be used for any purposes either positively or negatively. In the Encyclopaedia Britannica, Vol. 13, language is defined as "a system of conventional, spoken or written symbols by means of which human beings, as members of a social group and participants in its culture, communicate."

It is a misconception that some languages are superior and some languages are inferior. No language is a civilized or uncivilized one. People who use a language may use it in uncivilized or civilized fashion. On this basis, it can be said that language belongs to them who speak it. We may judge a person's background, character, and intentions based simply upon the person's language, dialect, or, in some instances, even the choice of a single word.

Skilful use of language may be resented, feared, or appreciated. Consider the following: "In April 1988 Saudi Arabia asked the U.S. to withdraw its newly appointed ambassador, Hume Horan, after only six months. News reports said King Fahd just didn't like the U.S. envoy. What the Saudis didn't like about him, though, was that he was the best Arabic speaker in the State Department, and had used his language skills to engage all kinds of Saudis, including the kingdom's conservative religious leaders who were critical of the ruling family. The Saudis didn't want someone so adroit at penetrating their society, so -- of course -- we withdrew Mr. Horan. Ever since then we've been sending non-Arabic-speaking ambassadors to Riyadh. ... "³

The role of language is very crucial in sending and receiving information. 'This admiration for language--real language, the sort only we human beings use--is well founded. The expressive, information-encoding properties of real language are practically limitless (in at least some dimensions), and the powers that other species acquire in virtue of their use of proto-languages, hemi-semi-demi-languages, are indeed similar to the powers we acquire thanks to our use of real language.'⁴

Information can be transmitted through a language or signs. From this point of view, a language can be divided into two types:

1. Natural language, and
2. Artificial language.

5. Natural Language (NL)

Natural language is defined as a language in the ordinary sense, which is or has been learned and spoken naturally by a community, as opposed to an artificial system resembling a language in one or more respects.⁵ In other words, a speech that is spoken by human beings is called a natural language. For example, English, French, Hindi, and Chinese are natural languages. Since it is spoken in a particular society, which always possesses a language, therefore, it can be said that language and its culture are complementary to each other. Besides, natural language is full of creativity. Natural language is also used in human intelligence and can be translated and analyzed. Natural language can be further divided into two parts:

1. standard language, and
2. figurative language.

Both of these forms are described below.

Standard language

A "standard" variety becomes a standard language after standardization and codification and it is used as in a formal speech and writing. It has fully developed grammar and standardized dictionary.

The distinction between "languages" and "dialects" is usually made more on social and political grounds than on purely linguistic ones. There may be several dialects in language out of one becomes dominant and considered to a "Standard".

If two varieties are mutually intelligible they are said to be dialects of the same language. But there are languages where this criterion does not work. For example, Cantonese and Mandarin are not mutually intelligible but are often called dialects of Chinese. Serbian and Croatian are mutually intelligible, but are often considered to be different languages.⁶ So is the case with Hindi and Urdu, which are mutually intelligible but are called different languages. Speakers of Swedish and Norwegian, which are regarded as separate "languages," generally understand each other.

Dialect is a regional variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, grammar, or vocabulary of speech differing from the standard literary language or speech pattern of the culture in which it exists. Different dialects have different pronunciations and different word choices. For example, soft drink is called pop in Iowa, tonic in New Hampshire, but soda on the East coast of USA; likewise, standard Japanese "dakara," meaning soft drink, is called "jaken" in Hiroshima area.

The language that one person (and only one person) speaks is called his or her idiolect. It means two persons cannot speak the same idiolect. In other words, idiolects are like fingerprints, which are different from person to person.

Figurative language

Figurative language has the power to make strange things normal and, much more rarely, normal things strange. It uses figure of speech, literal, and non-literal words (e.g. idioms, proverbs, simile, metaphors and metonymies) having more than one meaning.

6. Artificial Language (AL)

A system of symbols constructed for a particular purpose, such as a computer language or a system of symbolic logic. In other words, a language consisting of signs is called an artificial language. For example, the languages that are used in army, police, security, and intelligence are artificial languages. The artificial language is an activity specific language and plays an important role in terrorism, national security and signal intelligence. It is not very difficult in decoding and analysis as it employs several ever-changing codes. The code is a unit of signal. There can be two types of codes, which are generally used in signals: (i) signal codes, and (ii) cultural codes. These are described below:

Signal codes

Signal code, made up of a single digit, provides a means of converting information into a form suitable for communications, processing, or encryption. Common uses of signal codes include: (a) converting information into a form suitable for communications or encryption, (b) reducing the length of time required to transmit information, (c) describing the instructions which control the operation of a computer, and (d) converting plain text to meaningless combinations of letters or numbers and vice versa.

These codes are usually similar to the codes employed by army, air force, navy, police, and intelligence. These kinds of codes are not culture specific so can be decoded very easily if enough data are available. In order to avoid the decoding these codes are changed from time to time.

Cultural codes

Members of a particular society to communicate something of interest to one another use certain words that are specific to their culture are called cultural codes. As members of the same culture share sets of concepts, images and ideas which enable them to think and feel about the world, and thus to interpret the world, in roughly the same way. Obviously, one can learn much about a society, nation, or age both by examining the situations and structures its members adopt as codes or figurations and by observing how they manipulate, qualify, and adapt them. Cultural codes are generally assigned for specific things or persons. These codes are culture specific and difficult to be decoded unless some members of the specific culture provide the information.

7. Language-Terrorism Interface

No language in this world is a terrorist language and any language can be used for the purpose of terrorism. "As a band of trained terrorists plotted to blow up the World Trade Center, clues to the devastation ahead lay under the nose of law enforcement officials. The F.B.I. held videotapes, manuals and notebooks on bomb making that had been seized from Ahmad Ajaj, a Palestinian serving time in federal prison for passport fraud. There were phone calls the prison had taped, in which Mr. Ajaj guardedly told another terrorist how to build the bomb. There was one problem: they were in Arabic. Nobody who understood Arabic listened to them until after the explosion at the Trade Center on Feb. 26, 1993, which killed six people and injured more than a thousand."

Terrorism involves a particular language that shapes public opinion. The language of terrorism is created long before the first terrorist attack takes place. Language shapes reality and it conditions the terrorists that the way they think is the only way to think. It creates a picture of common enemy that must be attacked and destroyed through strategic measures.

Language plays an important role in terrorism and anti-national activities. Terrorism has at least two things: an ideology and a common objective. These two things make the terrorists unite and for this purpose a language is needed to serve this cause. It depends on the components of the terrorists what language they use. If the group of the terrorists belongs to one linguistic area generally they use their mother tongue/dialect as a means of interaction and communication. But, if they belong to different linguistic areas they employ a language that is understood by majority of members of the central group of syndicate.

Signal codes

Signal Codes are assigned for personal identity, operations, and missions or to block the information. Signals are employed to transmit the information from sender to the receiver. Steganography is the art and science of hiding a message in some other communication, so that no one but the sender and the receiver even knows a message is being sent. The words, characters or letters of the original intelligible message constitute the Plain Text (PT). The words, characters or letters of the secret form of the message are called Cipher Text (CT) and together constitute a Cryptogram. Cryptograms are roughly divided into Ciphers and Codes.

When we substitute one word for another word or sentence, like using a foreign language dictionary, we are using a code. When we mix up or substitute existing letters, we are using a cipher. The study of enciphering and encoding (on the sending end), and deciphering and decoding (on the receiving end) is called cryptography from the Greek kryptos, 'hidden' and graphia, 'writing'. To convert data by the use of a code, frequently one consisting of binary numbers, in such a manner that reconversion to the original form is possible.

Cultural codes

Cultural codes, in terrorism, are used for weapons, currency, explosives, and sharpshooters. Intelligence officer can decode these if he possesses good knowledge of the society and culture of the linguistic area of the terrorists. Since these codes are difficult to be decoded these are usually not changed unless there is emergency demand to do so.

8. Language and counter-terrorism

The security, stability, and economic vitality of the United States in a complex global era depend on American experts in and citizens knowledgeable about world regions, foreign languages, and international affairs, as well as on a strong research base in those areas. Intelligence is a general term for encompassing various mental abilities, including the ability to remember and use what one has learned, in order to solve problems, adapt to new situations, and understand and manipulate one's environment. Language plays important role intelligence and counter-terrorist activities.

Language is utilized heavily in the human intelligence and signals intelligence arenas. The military captures foreign transmissions of intelligence, pulls it down then listens to it, translates it and that tells us what is going on. "More than 40,000 U.S. troops are or have been stationed in more than 110 nations since 1991, including every nation in Latin America, all but two of the fifteen successor states to the USSR, some forty nations in Africa, and throughout South and Southeast Asia. More than 140 languages are spoken in these nations.

The Intelligence unit has a two-pronged mission: intelligence gathering and linguist functions. They require soldiers to train in four disciplines including: human intelligence, interrogation, counter-intelligence and language. They also deal in signals intelligence and cryptoanalysis, although those are considered separate from the other disciplines.

In the words of Christopher Mellon, Deputy Assistant Secretary of Defense, U.S.A., "Foreign language skills and area expertise are integral to or directly support every foreign intelligence discipline and are essential factors in national security readiness, information superiority, in coalition peacekeeping or war fighting missions."

"One cannot overstate the centrality of foreign language skills to the core mission of the intelligence community. Foreign languages come into play at virtually all points of the intelligence cycle, from collection to exploitation, to analysis and production. The collection of intelligence depends heavily on language, whether the information is gathered from a human source through a relationship with a field officer or gathered from a technical system." Information has to be processed and exploited, which entails verifying the accuracy and explaining it in clear and unambiguous terms. All source analysts then integrate these intelligence reports, along with media reports, including information from the Internet, embassy reporting and other information to produce finished intelligence products for decision-makers.

9. Shortfalls

The Intelligence Community often lacks the foreign language skills necessary to surge during a crisis. "In every national crisis from the Cold War through Vietnam, Desert Storm, Bosnia and Kosovo, our nation has lamented its foreign language shortfalls. But then the crisis "goes away," and we return to business as usual. One of the messages of Sept. 11 is that business as usual is no longer an acceptable option."

Lack of language skill experts

"The United States today faces a critical shortage of linguistically competent professionals across federal agencies and departments responsible for national security. The inability of intelligence officers, military personnel, disease specialists, law enforcement officers, and other federal employees to understand information from foreign sources and to interact with foreign nationals in virtually every country on the globe presents a threat to their mission and to the well being of the nation."

Lack of translation experts

A study sponsored by the American Translators Association, the Federal Interagency Language Roundtable, the Society of Federal Linguists, and the National Foreign Language Center showed that more than 80 Federal agencies have current foreign language requirements, from the Departments of State and Defense to the intelligence community to domestic and international law enforcement. At times, we obtain large volumes of documents that may be critical to make the case about gross human rights abuses by some countries, but lack of translating capacity makes it hard to provide thorough analysis in a timely way for policy decisions.

• And a lack of language skills can limit our analysts' insight into a foreign culture, restricting their ability to understand and anticipate deterioration in a particular domestic situation. This often diminishes our ability to warn policymakers about a potential trouble spot.
• Thousands of technical papers that provide details on foreign research and development in scientific or technical areas currently go untranslated because we lack the funds and personnel to interpret the material.
• One would also ideally want to be able to task on short notice workers with excellent language skills in relatively small places--where problems can lead to national engagements, ranging from a unilateral effort--such as an evacuation--humanitarian operations, alliance policies, or UN peacekeeping forces.

10. Critical Languages

From the security point of view, there are some languages in every country that are considered to be critical. The list of critical languages is different from country to country depending upon several factors.

In 1985, the U.S. Department of Education published a list of 169 languages, which the U.S. Government considered to be 'critical', in the sense that knowledge of them would promote important scientific research or security interests of a national or economic kind. Language is the most powerful, convenient and permanent means of communication that can be used either for positive or negative purposes. Language plays an important role in national security and any language can be used for destabilizing the same.

Demonstrated knowledge of history, culture, politics, and economy of the area/s of the world where the language is spoken as a native/first language. "Tomorrow's military force requires global capabilities, not only in terms of operational strength, but with regards to the quality of its people and their ability to adapt to different cultures and situations. In this dynamic and complex environment, regional expertise, language proficiency, and cross-cultural communications skills have become essential to our strategic success."

11. Study of Natural Language

As we discussed earlier, language plays an important role in the society. The study of a natural language can be carried out in two parts: Study of the standard language and Study of the society and culture of the language Study of the standard language

A vital part of any plan to improve the abilities of all Americans to function effectively in two or more languages is the quality of student learning in schools. Language education in schools is a key link in feeding into other sectors of the language education system. At present, a few American systems provide high quality programs that demonstrably produce graduates whose language proficiency compares with the skills currently demonstrated by the average college graduate with a major in foreign languages.

Continuity of instruction is critical to the attainment of the levels of proficiency needed for national security. High quality programs allow students to continue through a progression of language learning from grade to grade, and from elementary school through the university level. Qualified teachers staff high quality programs.

12. Study of the society and culture of the language

The culture of any country or group is best understood as a sort of continuous flow, with the creative energies of new talents contributing to change. "And lack of language skills can limit our analysts' insight into a foreign culture, restricting their ability to understand and anticipate a deterioration in a particular situation. This often diminishes our ability to warn policymakers about a potential trouble spot." At any single moment, culture is a complex amalgam of past glories and the current avant-garde. It can be learnt with the help of using Movies, Idioms, Sayings, Abuse, and Slang.

Decoding

Signal codes and cultural codes can be decoded and analyzed. To decode signal code there are several methods, which are usually taught, in military, police, security, and intelligence agencies. To decode a cultural code needs a good knowledge of the society and culture of the target groups.

Cultural codes

"Court-authorized electronic surveillance is highly effective and often involves a foreign language. Criminals usually use coded language to cover their activity and this complicates the issue even further. In 1993 you may remember the plot to bomb several New York landmarks by radical followers of an Egyptian sheik. The codeword used for the bombs was the Arabic word 'Hadduta,' which literally means a child's bedtime story when translated from Arabic. It sounded innocent enough but it became obvious that something was wrong when the suspects talked about preparing four 'Hadduta,' renting a warehouse for the 'Hadduta' and buying oil and fertilizer for the 'Hadduta.'"

The analysts on the production side rely on translated reports to produce all-source intelligence products. But these analysts also need foreign language capabilities as part of their role as regional or functional experts. They need to be able to exploit captured or acquired documents, monitor the media, and interact with foreign nationals, including on extended assignments overseas where adequate language skills can make the difference between success and failure in an analyst's intelligence mission.

This information is then disseminated to all-source analysts, and on occasion to customers, as raw intelligence. All source analysts integrate media reports and Internet, Embassy reporting, and other information to produce finished intelligence for policymakers.

13. Recommendations

To help meet the immediate and long-term language needs of the government agencies responsible for national security, the government must take concrete steps to determine the requirements for language in the various departments of government and the capacity for language in the country and coordinate the federal and academic response to this assessment.

More specifically, a significant improvement in national capacity will require a major federal effort to increase the number and proficiency level of graduates of existing federal language education facilities as well as graduates of the nation's schools, colleges, and universities teaching languages critical to national security.

Such an effort will require increases in funding of the federal language education facilities responsible for providing language instruction to federal employees concerned with national security.

1. Improve resource management as well as language skills of Intelligence Community analysts.
2. To advance the analytic tools necessary to allow non-linguists to search foreign language sources and databases in support of both military and non-military intelligence efforts.
3. The government should sponsor a large-scale survey that may compare the foreign language proficiency levels attained by university graduates and graduates of government language training programs. The results will help the Community to understand the extent it can rely on academia to meet Intelligence Community requirements for linguists.
4. The field research ideally should: a) consist of multiple trips, in order to facilitate the development of deep, rather than broad, contacts; and b) benefit from appropriate language skills, since using a translator, while in some cases unavoidable, is, unfortunately, often a hindrance, especially when the topic at hand is sensitive for the interviewee.
5. The language and analytical filters used for the region may need to be recalibrated or thrown out all together after we have gained a better understanding of how the people of the region think about these problems.
6. Language training to facilitate analysts' access to new sources of information, particularly foreign press and selected Internet websites.
7. Translations of foreign language source materials into English, then posting the product on the secure Interlink network.
8. To speak the language or know the customs, culture, and history of their country.
9. In addition, language has been established that can be inserted into intelligence reports that flag information to review by the State Department for inclusion in the Visa Viper system.
10. Strengthen and focus the integrated collection strategy incorporating the following:
    • ork to enhance the Intelligence Community's information processing capabilities;
    • Implement unified and standardized information systems, to include shared access by intelligence and consumer organizations;
    • Strengthen and broaden foreign language training and support tools;
    • Continue to review and evaluate new methodologies and technologies;
    • Continue to evaluate intelligence resources and capabilities for optimal support for actions to counter proliferation.
    • To build a national system of language programs capable of graduating professionals with high-level language expertise needed by the federal government.
    • Hiring new officers with sufficient foreign language capability is clearly one important solution to the shortfalls, but these newcomers will require other training and seasoning before the range of their skills is put to full use.
11. The Intelligence Community clearly would like to remedy key shortfalls, have a higher percentage of officers with knowledge of at least one language of the areas they work on, and have those with languages able to maintain their skills at a high level of functionality. The Community's managers who work the foreign language problem have tried to develop a set of core principles to guide their work:
    • Foreign language requirements should be driven by collection, analysis, and reporting.
    • The Intelligence Community's skills management systems must be postured to respond to crisis tasking quickly; and
    • The Community's language capability should be proportional to and not exceed the collection and analysis tasking it supports.
12. For the work force that is already in place, a number of important initiatives are underway to mitigate language shortfalls and plan for long-term needs across the Intelligence Community:
    • To improve our overall analysis and production capabilities, including establishing a robust Intelligence Community training and career development program, supporting a community-wide "virtual university," and developing options for a National Intelligence Academy for IC training and education. Foreign language training will be a necessary component of these collaborative Community training initiatives.
    • Contract employees who can be tapped when a crisis erupts.
    • Offer on-the-job language training.
    • Sponsor projects to develop and use technology, including machine translation tools, for foreign language training and processing.
    • Humans will remain a key part of this equation. The trend is toward development of tools that are intended to assist rather than replace the human language specialist and the instructor. Still, though this capability is not intended to replace humans, it is increasingly useful in niche areas, such as technical publications.

In conclusion, it is clear that strong and adequate foreign language skills are essential to the successful performance of the foreign intelligence mission. Inadequate foreign language skills are a mismatch for the exponential growth in foreign language materials. The Intelligence Community requires a real-time system that allows analysts to search in English against foreign language media. This system must automatically index, store, and retrieve materials in all formats; it must provide machine translations that allow analysts to select textual components for professional translation.

14. Language Learning

To seed elementary and secondary language programs across the United States as a response to the emerging trend of terrorism.

Significant support for foreign language education in schools, particularly those that lead to continued language learning in the postsecondary years. The followings points in this regard are important:

• Intensive support to expand the pool of highly qualified language teachers.
• Policies and programs that aim to maintain the language proficiencies of heritage learners in our schools.
• Heritage language students are a rich resource, providing a significant pool of language competence on which schools and government language instruction, particularly in languages not frequently chosen for study by American students.

Some languages are easy to learn and others are difficult to learn. On the basis of structural and cultural nature of a language, the learning of a language takes certain time to master it. "The Department of State, USA classifies all of these languages (except Arabic) as category III for native speakers of English, with category IV being the hardest. Arabic is a category IV language. In category III languages, 44 weeks of intensive language training in US government language schools (5 days per week, 6 hours per day) are required to achieve minimum working proficiency. 63 weeks are required for category IV. Similar results are achieved after 4 years of typical college language courses, especially if students spend at least one semester abroad learning the language, in addition to their language courses in the US." Language learning can be more effective, when a foreign word is extensively processed, which means recording, classifying and delimiting its meaning and associating stories, images and sounds. The language learning can be put on a five-point scale from 0 to 5.

Level 5
Level 4
Level 3
Level 2
Level 1
Level 0

The scale starts at zero-no knowledge of the given language, and goes up to five-proficiency equivalent to that of an educated native speaker of the language.

• To achieve level 1-basic knowledge of the language, words used in daily life, addressing system, and simple sentences and questions. It takes 300 hours: six hours per day, five days per week, for ten weeks.
• To achieve level 2-minimum working proficiency-that is, someone is able to function on their own, able to talk about familiar topics and daily life. It takes 600 hours: six hours per day, five days per week, for twenty weeks.
• To achieve level 3-working proficiency and someone who can work as a professional like an engineer, doctor, professor-in the language. It takes 900 hours: six hours per day, five days per week, for thirty weeks.
• To achieve level 4-maximum working proficiency means one is like an educated native speaker of the language, except some weakness in the grasping of the figurative sentences of the language. It takes 1200 hours: six hours per day, five days per week, for forty weeks.
• To achieve level 5-like an educated native speaker of the language. It is mastered by having the knowledge of the language and its culture more than eighty percent. It takes 1500 hours: six hours per day, five days per week, for fifty weeks plus six months' field work in the area.

Some prominent intelligence agencies provides first class training for intelligence professionals and seeks energetic, creative, and committed individuals to deliver programs that provide students with general and job-related foreign language communication skills and cross-cultural awareness needed to live and work abroad effectively or to perform other language-related duties. Mentioned in CIA website, "Language and Foreign Area Specialists serve an integral role in the Agency's mission, conducting research, examining foreign media, and translating material for substantive analysis and reporting on critical intelligence."

Foreign language instructors should:

• Apply the latest instructional methodologies to meet highly customized student needs;
• Conduct language proficiency testing in reading, speaking, and understanding for skills evaluation; and
• Provide a variety of language support services worldwide.

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