1. THE VERB BE
The Verb be has an important role to play in the syntax of any grammar. It is different from other verbs because of its nature and diversity of functions. It is unique and cannot be defined categorically.
The most important characteristic feature of verb be is its stativity. It can be either +stative or -stative. The form of verb be may also vary accordingly. For example, in Hindi hona serves as both +stative and -stative in present tense whereas in past tense tha is used for +stative purpose and hua is used for -stative purpose.
Unlike other verbs, be has multiple functions to perform in various types of constructions in the languages of the world. These functions are strikingly diverse in nature.
2. FUNCTIONS OF VERB BE
Russell (1903, as mentioned in Kahn 1973 : 4) pointed out four different functions of verb be:
- The sense in which it asserts being as in 'A is' (Existence).
- The sense of identity.
- The sense of predication as in 'A is human' (identity).
- The sense of 'A is man' (class inclusion).
But Russell's classification of the functions of verb be is not adequate.
3. OTHER FUNCTIONS OF VERB BE
In fact, the verb be performs many more functions. They can be classified in the following ways:
3.1. COPULATIVE
Verb be serves as a copula or a linker between two nouns, and its structure is 'NP is NP'.
In other words, it can be said that it links a subject and a predicate. This function is referred to as copulative function. It is interesting to note that the copula need not necessarily be present at the surface structure. This is evident in many languages of the world.
The copulative function can be further classified into Equative and Attributive constructions.
3.2. EQUATIVE
In these constructions, the verb be links two NPs, the structure of which is NN. There can be some more subcategories of Equative constructions which are mentioned below with examples:
- Identification.
Nina is my sister.
- Class Membership.
He is a teacher.
- Generic.
Lion is an animal.
- Demonstrative.
That is my horse.
3.3. ATTRIBUTIVE
In attributive constructions, the verb be serves as a copula between a noun and an adjective, for example,
She is good.
We may have generic attributive constructions like the following:
Sea is blue.
Tiger is wild.
4. PARTICIPLE FORMATION
The verb be is used for the purpose of forming participles. Three different types of participles, namely, adjectival, adverbial, and predicative perfect can be formed.
4.1. ADJECTIVAL PARTICIPLE
There are two types of adjectival participles, which can be illustrated in the following examples. Type 1 can be illustrated with the following Hindi examples:
- admi gana ga reha he
man song sing prog.m is
The man is singing a song.
- gana gata: hua: admi
song singing been men
The man (who) is singing a song.
From (i) we may form the imperfect participle of (ii) by adding the imperfect aspect marker ta to the verb root and juxtaposing hua, that is, the perfective form of verb be to it.
There is another type of Adjectival participle, which can be illustrated with the help of the following Assamese examples. (∩ stands for broken O in the examples given in this article.)
- soaliz∩ni gh∩r∩t asε
girl-Det. House Loc is
The girl is in the house.
- gh∩r∩t th∩ka soaliz∩ ni
house Loc be girl-Det. (perfect Participle)
The girl in the house.
In this sentence th∩ka which is perfect participle form of verb be is used as an adjective of the noun soali (girl).
4.2. ADVERBIAL PARTICIPLE
In Hindi we find constructions in which perfective form of verb be is used to form an Adverbial Participle.
ram khate hue gana ga raha tha
Ram eating been song sing Prog.m was
Ram was singing while eating.
4.3. PREDICATIVE PERFECT PARTICIPLE
Perfect Participle form of verb be may be used for predicative purpose. In such constructions, perfective form of verb be is juxtaposed to the main verb, for example,
vah kami:z pehna (hua) tha:
He shirt wearing been was
He was wearing a shirt.
5. TENSE MARKER
Verb be also functions as a tense marker in a language. This can be illustrated with the help of the following Hindi sentences.
- vah gana ga raha hε
he song sing Prog.m. is
He is singing a song.
- vah gana ga raha tha
he song sing Prog.m. was
He was singing a song.
In these sentences all the constituents of (i) remain the same in (ii) but the change in the form of verb be is used as a marker of tense.
6. EXISTENTIAL
Here the verb be functions as a main verb and focuses on the existence of the subject NP. It can be illustrated with the following example from Assamese.
kazir∩ηat g∩r thakε
Kizironga Loc. Rhinoceros is
Rhinoceros exist in Kazironga.
- Locative (Space)
Verb be is used to indicate the spatial location of the subject NP in a construction.
The girl is in the room.
- Locative (Time)
Verb be is used to link a subject NP and a particular point in time in constructions which contain the temporal locative element.
The meeting is at 6 O'clock.
7. POSSESSIVE
Verb be serves as a linker between possessor noun and possessed noun. The nature of possession is of the following types.
a) (i) Kinship-blood relation, illustrated with Hindi examples.
Pitaji ke tin bete he
Father Gen three sons are
Father has three sons.
(ii) Kinship non-blood-relation. This is also illustrated with Hindi examples.
nina ki ek saheli hε
Nina Gen. One friend is
Nina has a friend.
b) (i) Animate Possession. Human.
This can be illustrated with the following Assamese example:
tar sarita sakor asε
His four servant is
He has four servants.
(ii) Animate Possession. Non-Human.
This is also illustrated with the following Assamese sentence.
mor eta pohonia kukur asε
I Gen. one pet dog is
I have a pet dog.
c) Inalienable Possession. Illustrated with Bengali examples.
manusher duto pa achε
man Gen. two leg is
Man has two legs.
However, verb be here ('achε') is optional.
d) Alienable Possession. This is also illustrated with Bengali examples.
tar tintε boy achε
he gen. three book is
He has three books.
e) Physical State. Verb be is also used to indicate a physical state in the form of possession. For example, in Hindi,
mujhe buxa:r hε
I Dat. fever is
I have fever.
f) Mental Temperament
Mental temperatment can be indicated in possessive construction where verb be serves as a linker. This can be illustrated with the following Bengali examples.
amar procur dhorjya achε
I Gen. great patience is
I have great patience.
8. CONJUNCT VERB
This can be illustrated with an Assamese example. In Assamese, verb be, hoa, is used in its perfective form to serve the purpose of a conjunct verb. For example,
sinema arombh∩ hoi gol
Cinema begin be-go + pst
The film has begun.
However, verb be here is -stative.
Thus we find that verb be has diverse functions. Although there are different surface manifestations of verb be, there is reason to believe that they are all homogenous at an underlying level because they all exhibit one common aspect, namely, the state of being. Thus, it can be summarized that they are different forms of verb be only.
9. THREE VERBS TO SERVE THE PURPOSE OF VERB BE
Assamese uses three verbs to serve the purposes of verb be. These are as, thak, and hoa. Their distribution is as follows:
9.1. COPULATIVE
No form of verb be is used as copula in affirmative sentences in the present tense. But it is present in future tense, past tense and in negative constructions in present tense also.
a) Equative Constructions
(i) Identification
Present Tense
teo mor stri
She I Gen. wife
She is my wife.
Present tense - Negative
teo mor stri n ∩ h ∩y
She I Gen. wife not is
She is not my wife.
Past Tense
teo mor stri asil
she I Gen wife was
She was my wife.
Future Tense
teo mor stri hobo
She I Gen. wife will be
She will be my wife.
In all equative constructions in Assamese, verb be is absent in present tense in case of affirmative whereas in case of negative, past tense and future tense, it is obligatory.
b) Generic Attributive Construction
(i) xag∩r nila
sea blue
Sea is blue.
(ii) eix∩m∩yot xag∩r nila h∩y
at this time sea blue is
Sea is blue at this time.
9.2. PARTICIPLE FORMATION
a) Adjective Participle
Verb thak is used to form adjective participle of the following types.
(i) g∩s∩r porith∩ka pat
tree Gen fall being leave
Falling tree leaves
(ii) mez∩r oporot tho∩ka k∩la∩mto bhal
table Gen. on being Pen Det good
The pen on the table is good.
b) Adverbial Participle
In Assamese adverbial participles are formed in two ways:
(i) By reduplicating verb root imperfect aspect marker like the following.
xi goy goy uttor dile
he going going reply gave
He replied while going.
(ii) In this case imperfect marker of thak is juxtaposed with the imperfect aspect marker of the verb root.
hi goy thaki uttor dile
He going being reply gave
He replied while going.
9.3. TENSE MARKER
Verb be is also used in Assamese as Tense Marker. In this case verb hoa is used.
(i) bhat∩rⅣndha hoise
rice cooked being is
Rice is being cooked.
(ii) bhat r∩ndha hoisil
rice cooked being was
Rice was being cooked.
10. EXISTENTIAL
Two verbs, namely, as and thak are used for this purpose.
(i) bhar∩t∩t onek gao asε
India Loc many villages is
There are many villages in India.
(ii) kazir∩ηat g ∩r thakε
kazironga Loc. rhinoceros is
There are rhinoceros in Kazironga.
(iii) bhag∩ban asε
God is
God exists.
11. LOCATIVE
Verb asε is used in these constructions.
a) Locative (Space).
tay kothat asε
she room Loc. is
She is in the room.
seni b∩t∩l∩t asε
sugar bottle Loc. is
Sugar is in the bottle.
b) Locative (Time)
h∩bhakh∩n pasta bozat asε
meeting Det. five time Loc. is
The meeting is at five o clock.
12. POSSESSIVE
In Assamese verb be also serves as a linker between possessed noun and possessor noun. Both as and thak are used depending on the nature of possession. In case of universal truths thak is used and otherwise as is used. But usually they are optional.
a) Kinship: Blood and Non-blood Relation
tekhet∩r tiniz∩ni soali (asε)
he(hon) Gen. three girl is
He has three daughters.
Mor onek bondhu (asε)
I Gen. many friend is
I have many friends.
b) Animate Possession: Human and Non-Human
(i) tekhet∩r onek sak∩r (asε)
he (hon) Gen many servant is
He has many servants.
(ii) tekhet∩r onek pohonia kukur asε
he (hon) Gen. many pet dog is
He has many pet dogs.
It is noticed that, in case of human possession, verb be is optional but, in case of non-human possession, it is obligatory.
c) Inalienable Possession
In case of inalienable possession, two verbs are optionally used. In case of generic constructions, verb thak and in specific cases asε is used.
(i) manuh∩r duta bhori (thakε)
man Gen. two leg is
Man has two legs.
(ii) mor duta bhori (as∩)
I Gen. two leg is
I have two legs.
d) Alienable Possession
Verb be is used optionally.
(i) tar tiniknon kitap (asε)
he Gen. three book is
He has three books.
(ii) tayr dukhon hari (asε)
she Gen. two sari is
She has two saris.
e) Physical State
In case of physical state verb be is optionally used.
(i) tar zor asε
he Gen. fever is
He has fever.
But verb be cannot be used in Assamese in a construction like 'I am hungry.' But such constructions are possible in many Indian languages.
f) Mental Temperament
Here also verb be is used either obligatorily or optionally depending on the structure of the sentence.
(i) tar xah∩x asε
he Gen. courage is
He has courage.
But
(ii) tar bo∩r xah∩x
he Gen. great courage
He has great courage.
From the above sentences it is obvious that when an adjective precedes the noun, verb be is optional, and otherwise it is obligatory.
13. CONJUNCT VERB
Verb be, hoa, is used in its perfective form to serve the purpose of a conjunct verb. For example,
sinema aro∩mb∩ hoi gol
cinema begin +Perf. Go+pst.
The movie has begun.
Verb be here is -stative.
14. MAIN VERB
hoa, a -stative verb, can also be used as a main verb in Assamese.
ki hol∩
What happened?
Thus, from the examples cited above, it can be concluded that most of the functions of verb be listed in the beginning are performed in Assamese by three different forms of the same verb as mentioned already.