LANGUAGE IN INDIA

LANGUAGE OF NEWS-REPORTING IN INDIAN LANGUAGE NEWSPAPERS
A Study of Malayalam News-Reporting
Geethakumary, V., Ph.D.

1. NEWSPAPER LANGUAGE

Newspapers use a different style of language for reporting. Most of the time newspapers use indirect or implied expressions in the headlines to create enthusiasm and expectation in readers. A common feature of the newspaper language is its undertone and sarcastic sense, which they convey through attractive headlines. For making a headline attractive and catchy, newspapers prefer to use idiomatic compounds and rhetoric expressions. This paper tries to analyze the different types of rhetoric expressions and idiomatic compounds used in the Malayalam newspaper-reporting to covey the undertone and sarcastic sense.

2. RHETORIC EXPRESSIONS IN NEWSPAPERS

Traditionally, rhetoric has been concerned with the art of persuasion. Plato defined rhetoric as the winning of men's minds by words. For Aristotle, rhetoric was the faculty of discerning the possible means of persuasion in each case. The new rhetoric is also concerned with the processes of persuasion. It is concerned with the description and analysis of the processes of persuasion, and is based on psychology (Maccoby, 1967).

Rhetoric expressions, which are characteristic of a departure from the ordinary form of expressions or ordinary course of ideas, are occasionally used in newspaper headlines to achieve certain objectives.

3. SOME IMPORTANT DEVICES OF EXPRESSIONS

Figurative usages like personification ("representation of a thing or abstraction as a person or by the human form" such as in expressions that personify wisdom as a woman), simile ("a figure of speech comparing two unlike things" such as the expression cheeks like roses), metaphor ("a figure of speech in which a word or phrase literally denoting one kind of object or idea is used in place of another to suggest a likeness or analogy between them" as in the expression drowning in money), metonymy (a figure of speech consisting of the use of the name of one thing for that of another of which it is an attribute or with which it is associated, as in the expression "lands belonging to the crown"), euphemism ("the substitution of an agreeable or inoffensive expression for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant"), antithesis (the rhetorical contrast of ideas by means of parallel arrangements of words, clauses or sentences, as in "action, not words," "they promised freedom and provided slavery"), oxymoron (a combination of contradictory or incongruous words such as the expression cruel kindness), irony, pun, structural ambiguity, transferred epithet, hyperbole, and litotes (understatement in which an affirmative is expressed by the negative of the contrary as in "not a bad singer," "not unhappy," etc.) are found to be commonly used.

In addition, formal devices such as epigram/proverb, idiom, imperative, interrogation, exclamation, focus, reduplication, ellipsis, onomatopoeia and rhyme are also used to bring in the rhetoric effect.

4. SOME FUNCTIONS OF RHETORICAL EXPRESSIONS IN THE LANGUAGE OF REPORTING

Rhetoric expressions in general make a headline sensational, eye-catching and attractive through the connotative or emotional contents involved in them. They form a part of free-style headlines as opposed to the news-style headlines, which are purely informative (Leelavathi: 1996:254).

5. SENSATIONAL HEADINGS

Personification

To make a headline sensational newspapers used to personify inanimate objects and abstract notions, such as:

1. kaniya:te vi:NTum karuNa
help-neg. again Karuna
'Without helping again Karuna'

2. kLa:smuRikaLil antyasva:sam valikkunna ingLi:s
classroom-pl.loc. last breath take-pre English
'English is taking its last breath inside the classrooms'

In example (1), the headline is about a rescue boat named 'Karuna' which is not functioning due to some mechanical problems. Here the boat is spoken as having life and therefore mentioned that it is not showing pity towards people who are in danger while traveling in the sea.

The meaning of the word karuNa is 'mercy'. In this context, reported in the newspaper, the headline sarcastically tells us that there is no relationship between the behavior of the boat at the time of need for the people who are in danger, and the name given of the boat, KARUNA. Though this is the surface meaning, this statement also reflects the callous attitude of the administrators in maintaining the boats.

In example (2), English language is personified and the headline describes that it is dying inside the classroom. The news story is about the irrelevant method of teaching English language in Government and government-aided schools in Kerala. Thus, it is implied that the teachers are "killing" this language in their classrooms.

Comparison

In headlines like,

(3) pisukkanRe vi:TTile muNTupo:le
miser-Gen. house-loc. dhoti-com.mar
'like the dhoti in the miser's house'

(4) occupo:le ni:nnunna fayal
snail-com.mar. move-pre. file.
'file which moves like a snail'

Comparison is made between things which may have some cultural or other meanings. For instance, in the example (3), the slabs covering the drainage in the city are compared with the dhoti of the misers. This expression is more culture-specific, because, in Malayalam, there is a proverb which says that in the Miser's house the miser and his wife together have only one dhoti and therefore when the miser comes out of the house, miser's wife will stay (naked) inside due to the shortage of dhoti.

In the same way due to the shortage of slabs for covering the drainage when the authorities cover one portion of the drainage the other portion is left to open. Here, like the miser, the administrators do not use the public funds properly and struggle or try to cover the drainage using a limited number of slabs. People know that the authorities try to cheat or misguide the public by giving false statements such as there are no adequate funds, or there is shortage of slabs, etc.

The main reason, according to the headline, however, is the malfunctioning of the administrative machinery which is not utilizing the funds properly. The headline succeeds in making a good linkage between a culture-specific proverb and the alleged administrative flaws.

In example (4), the movement of files from the officials' table is compared to that of a snail's movement. The Snail is a small animal noted for its slow movement. Thus, to express the laziness of Government workers this simile is used in this headline.

Comparison Using Implied Meaning

Consider the following headlines:

(5) ga:laRikaLilum taNuppupaTaRnnu
gallery.pl.pp. cold spread-past

(6) gavaNmenRe uRannunnu
Government sleep - pre.
'Government is sleeping'

The silent atmosphere in the gallery (5) is identified as taNuppu. The implied meaning here is that the people in the gallery are watching the match without any thrill (or some sort of participation). This can go along with the disinterest and the uneventful play. Therefore the gallery is very silent with no response from the spectators.

Example (6) relates to the "inactiveness or inaction" of the Government by using the word uRakkam 'sleep'. The headline refers to the inactive attitude or insufficient response of the Government towards Kashmir security force even though the country's military is under great strain and tension. These two examples (5) and (6) involve a comparison of two things X and Y (in example (5) silent atmosphere is compared to taNuppu, and in (6) inactiveness to uRakkam). In these comparisons, both the elements compared are totally identified with one another. This type of comparison differs from simile, where one element is considered to be like the other element.

The uniqueness of this type of comparisons, especially when it appears in the headlines, is that the reader will be more attracted towards the news, mainly because of the language device used. For instance, in the above examples, appropriate Malayalam expressions are replaced by the expressions which may convey similar sense. Thus, in example (5) instead of using the ordinary expression nisabdama:yi 'become silent,' the phrase taNuppu paTaRnnu 'cold spread' is used. Similarly, in the example (6), instead of pRavaRttana rahitam 'inactive,' the verb uRannunnu is used.

Whole-Part Relationship

Consider the following examples:

(7) kalkkatta vijayanu pinna:le
Calcutta Vijayan-dat. behind
'Calcutta is going behind Vijayan'

(8) khorkinayuTe pilavu RasyayuTe kaNNuni:ra:yi
Khorkina-gen. mistake Russia-gen. tears-past.
'mistake of Khorkina became Russia's tears'

These illustrate the whole and part relationship, where the whole may refer to a part or vice versa. In example (7), the word Calcutta refers to the people of Calcutta in general and the football authorities of Calcutta in specific. The headline refers to the pressure from the Calcutta football authorities to include Vijayan, who seems to be a star player, in their team. Here, the headline, instead of saying "Calcutta football authorities are going behind Vijayan," mentioned that Calcutta is going behind Vijayan, which has an implied meaning that the whole of Calcutta is going behind the footballer. This is definitely not the truth. This tactics is used mainly to draw the attention of the readers.

In example (8), the word Russia is used instead of gymnastic authorities of Russia. Here, the main loss incurred is for the gymnastic authorities due to the loss of championship and, in a milder sense, for the people of Russia who are interested in sports.

Antithetic Expressions

In another set of rhetoric expressions, newspapers have adopted the method of using antithetic expressions.

For instance, consider the following sentences.

(9) valiya bha:gyam vilkkunna ceRiya manusyan
big fortune sell-pre. small person
'small person who is selling the big fortune'

(10) avasa:nametti onna:mata:yi
last come-past first become-past
'last came and became first'

(11) iRRalikku jayam, no:rveykku para:jayam Italy-dat. victory Norway-dat. defeat 'Victory for Italy and defeat for Norway'

(12) cirippiccu oTuvil karayiccu ya:tRaya:yi
made to laugh at last made to cry go-past.perfect.
'First made the people to laugh and there by (his) death made the people to cry'

These reveal a striking opposition or contrast of words or sentiments made in the same statement. This results in emphasis. Example (9) is about a dwarf person who is earning his livelihood by selling lottery tickets. Here valiya 'big' and ceRiya 'small' are antithetically used. Thus valiya bha:gyam is used for lottery ticket and ceRiya manusyan for the dwarf person.

In example (10), avasa:nam 'last' and onna:matu 'first' are antithetically used. The story is about an athlete who came late in the playground for the competition but got the first prize for that item.

In example (11), jayam 'win' and para:jayam 'defeat' are antithetically used for Italy and Norway.

Example (12) is about the death of a comedian Malayalam film actor Sainudin. cirippiccu 'made to laugh' and karayiccu 'made to cry' are antithetically used.

In all the above examples (9 to 12), the caption is given in such a way that the words used in the captions give opposing meanings. By doing so, the writers attract the attention of the readers, and bring some delight to their imagination. The assumptions of the news report are also revealed in this process.

Use of Ironical Expressions

Another technique adopted by the printed media to attract the attention of the readers is the use of ironical expressions. Irony is a mode of speech in which the real meaning is exactly the opposite of that which is really conveyed or having some implied meaning in it.

The following expressions may be considered.

(13) itu makkaL ra:stri:yamo:?
This child-pl. politics intro.
Is this family-members politics?

(14) niyamasabhayil ka:RRinu iTam koTukku:
Assembly-loc. wind-dat. space give-imp.pl.
'Please give space to breathe air in the legislative assembly'

In example (13), irony is introduced through a rhetorical/tag question. Here, the speaker also should know that it is not family-member's politics. Thus, the meaning of the headline is just opposite to the one which is conveyed in the headline.

In example (14), the presence of a large crowd in the legislative assembly is ironically introduced. It is declared by the report that here is no passage or space even for the wind to circulate or move. The message given in the headline is that unnecessary crowds in the legislative assembly should be avoided.

Use of Transferred Epithet

In certain other headlines, expressions are made sensational by the use of transferred epithet.

(15) te:n kalikku: ji:vitam madhurikkaTTe
honey take.imp.pl. life sweet-opt
'take honey, sweeten your life'

(16) cuvanna ne:ppa:L
'red Nepal'

In example (16) cuvanna ne:ppa:L is used to indicate Nepal to be a communist nation. When communists came to power in Nepal, the emblem or the identity of the communist party, i.e., their red flag, is linked with Nepal and the nation was referred to as Red Nepal.

Exaggeration

Consider the following examples:

(17) vilakaL va:no:Lam uyaRnnu
price-pl. sky-dir. Hike-pas
'price hiked up to the sky'

(18) gyasinu poLLnna vila
gas-dat. burn-pre price
'burning price for cooking gas'

These statements are made with some exaggeration. In example (17), in order to show the extent of price hike, a comparison is made that the hike in the price of cooking gas per cylinder is as high as the sky, which is an exaggeration. The implied meaning is that people cannot buy things because of the price, which reached up to the sky.

In example (18), the price hike of the cooking gas is more attractively given by saying that people cannot even touch the cooking gas cylinder because it is very hot or burning due to the high price! Here the actual function of cooking gas and its present condition are stated sarcastically. The actual function of cooking gas is to help cooking, but here the cylinder itself is burning due to high price. poLLunna vila, ti:piTicca vila are also used to indicate the high price.

Proverbs

In every language, proverbs are coined by the society by taking into consideration the long experience the community undergoes. Mostly proverbs are related to life, and the proverbs are always conditioned by the environment and society. Hence every proverb has some deep-rooted cultural attestation with that society. This phenomenon is often exploited by the media when they select certain proverbs to report on the daily activities.

For instance, consider the following examples 19 and 20.

(19) irikkunna kombu muRikkuka
sit-pre. branch cut
'cutting the branch where one is sitting'

(20) na:n ippo:L cu:TuveLLattil vi:Na pu:cca
I now hot water-loc. fell-past cat
'now I am a cat fallen in hot water'

The implied meaning of the proverb given in 19, irikkunna kombu muRikkuka, is about doing a foolish job. Here the news story reveals the present policies of the Government, which are not at all beneficial to common people. Thus, the Government's function is actually harmful for its own existence. In this way, it is cutting the branch in which it is sitting, imagery well-known to all.

Similarly, in example (20), the meaning of the proverb cu:TuveLLattil vi:Na pu:cca pacca veLLam kaNDa:l aRaykkum is that of a cat which accidentally fell into hot water and became afraid of even cold water. In the above headline, the speaker is describing his pathetic condition in such a way that he is not able to say anytthing because whatever statement he makes now will become a controversy. The implied meaning is that anything the speaker utters will be misinterpreted by the listeners and the meaning is totally distorted. It also implies that similar misinterpretations leading to embarrassing and awkward controversies had taken place with regard to his comments in the past. Mainly because of this reason, the speaker does not wish make any statement in public and thus wants to be silent on the matter raised.

Imperative Expressions

Through imperative expressions, the newspapers often warn the readers about many things happening in the country. These sentences are also used to sarcastically comment on government or any other public organizations. The imperative sentences are often selected by the newspapers because by their very structure these sentences directly involve the readers. Hence, these sentences are very effective.

For example, consider the following sentences.

(21) ka:lnaTakka:re suksikku:
pedestrians -pl.imp. careful
'pedestrians be careful'

(22) naTappatakaLe oliva:kku: footpath-pl. avoid-imp. 'avoid the footpaths'

In sentence (21), pedestrians are advised to be careful about the slabs in the footpath. Some portions of the footpaths are devoid of slabs and thus pose danger to life. But the headline does not mention the footpath directly. By way of involving the reader through the above sentence without mentioning the danger that lies ahead, more curiosity is created among the readers. Example (22) is also without the subject, and it mentions the pathetic conditions of slabs in the footpath. Here the pedestrians are advised to avoid footpaths for safety! Yes, we are advised to avoid footpath for safety, the very means that was originally created to offer us safety! In addition to that, this caption also indirectly hits on the inactive nature of the government agency for not attending to their work.

Interrogation and Exclamation

In newspaper headlines, interrogation and exclamation are used in different senses. The captions sometimes use interrogation with some implied meaning or for a negative implication. The interrogation can sometimes cause a speculation among the readers with the idea conveyed through it. It can help develop a doubt, or can show the uncertain nature of a solution. Thus, interrogation can be used to convey different expressions, and because of this nature, the interrogatory sentences are used by print media to attract the attention of the readers as it is revealed through the following examples:

(23) innaneyokke paRaya:n alikko:D a:ru?
Like this speak-pp. Azhikode who?
'who is Azhikode for speaking like this?'

Here the implied meaning is that Azhikode is not a significant person, or holds adequate authority or stature to tell these things. What qualifications doe he have to say these things? He is either telling lies or deliberately misleading us seems to be the implication of this interrogative statement.

(24) rastri:yattil ce:runnatil teRR entu?
politics-loc. enter-pre-pp wrong what
'what is wrong in entering politics?'

It is a negative implication giving the meaning there is nothing wrong in entering politics.

(25) vaidyuti bo:Rdu e:pRilil punasanghTippikkum?
electricity board April-loc. reorganize-fut.
'electricity board may reorganize in April?'

Here the interrogative is used for speculation. The report is not sure about the reorganization that is being contemplated, but it speculates that the reorganization may occur in April.

Similarly exclamatory marks are used to express emotionally loaded implied meanings. Exclamation may be used to imply some "hidden secret" or the "real reason" for the incident being reported, as in the following examples:

(26) ca:lakkuTippa:lam aTaccatinu pinnil duru:hata!
Chalakkuti bridge close-past-pp behind hidden secret
'There may be some hidden secret behind the closure of Chalakkudi bridge.'

Here, the exclamatory mark stands for some unusual event.

(27) akramannaL koNToru a:ghosam!
calamity-pl. using festival
'a festival of calamities'

The writer of the caption in 27 uses an exclamatory sentence to wonder whether one can think that the calamities in the capital can be treated as a festival. In other words, the extent of calamities is such that it looks like a festival!

6. IDIOMATIC COMPOUNDS

Besides the rhetoric expressions, newspapers also use idiomatic compounds to covey the sarcastic sense. These idiomatic compounds used by the newspapers in sarcastic sense are analyzed here.

The compounds like kuzhalppaNam 'illegal transaction in foreign exchange', bLe:Dukambani (literally meaning "blade company") are of recent origin in Malayalam. In these examples, each lexical item of the compound word will give have their own meaning (in the first example kuzhal 'a pipe' and paNam 'money'), which is different from the meaning of the compound formed, "illegal transaction in foreign exchange," or "money-laundering." In the second example, bLe:Dukambani stands for money lending institutions which charge exorbitant interest that tend to cut the necks of the debtors!

Yet another example for this type of compound is kase:rakaLi. Here the literal word meaning is 'musical chair,' but this word has got an extended meaning in the current usage. This word is mainly used to denote 'the tricky play of the power-holders to retain their position'.

The compound maNiyaTi has an extended meaning to refer to sycophancy or flattering by a person to gain something. The original meaning is "ringing the bell."

Newspapers with an intention to make attractive headlines prefer to use idiomatic compounds. In most of the newspapers one can observe the usage anna:Tippa:TT? instead of the commonly used term parasyasangati, for a secret which is widely revealed and known to many. The media will prefer to use the idiomatic compound iraTTatta:pp? instead of the common term paksapa:tam to express the double-dealing or bias of government in different occasions. By using the compounds with idiomatic meanings, the newspapers try to express the sarcastic sense behind the news item.

Newspapers use the idiomatic compounds to add more effects on to their sarcastic writing. That is how they use the terms like kaRavappašu, which means a milch cow to refer to something which is a source of income usually unlawful, anca:mpatti to refer a person who is an opportunist instead of the commonly used term avasarava:di, ta:ppa:na instead of paricayasambannan for a person who is clever in taming or winning over others, in their reporting.

Media will use the term iruTTaTi "a blow in the dark" to refer any unexpected blow given by the Government to the public especially through price-hike or fare-hike, etc,. This compound also has an idiomatic sense.

The compound urukkumusTi "iron hand" is used by the media to refer to some harsh or merciless attitude of the higher authorities. Here, the constituents will convey different meanings, as in the case of other idiomatic compounds. urukk? 'steel,' and musTi 'hand'.

To refer to the term "reality" or "realistic", media will give preference to the compound uLLukaLLi instead of the common term yadha:rdhyam. This indirect way of writing will attract the mass to the particular news item.

The compound u:nnuvaTi, which means a walking stick, has an idiomatic meaning of dependence also. The media will use this particular word in the idiomatic sense in its reporting.

The use of the compound ku:tta:TTam to refer to wanton behavior instead of marya:dakeTTa peruma:Rram reflects the undertone in the media reporting.

The use of the compounds pinva:til in the sense of something improper instead of the direct term avihitama:rgam, poLicceluttu for total change instead of the common term samu:la ma:Rram, use of the compound mannapatRam for indecent publications instead of the common term asli:la prasidhi:karaNam, use of the term vaLaccoTikkuka to misinterpret instead of the direct term durvya:khya:nam ceyyuka, use of kumbhako:Nam for corruption the commonly used word alimati and the use of the term viluppalakkuka to make the secrets public are widely known instead of the direct usage rahasyannaL puRatta:kkuka. These are some additional examples that reveal the constant search of new expressions in place of old ones in order to invigorate the imagination of the readers and to breath greater dynamism into the reports presented.

7. CONCLUSION

From the above analysis it is found that, in Malayalam (and other Indian languages) newspapers, rhetoric expressions and idiomatic compounds are commonly used to make the headlines more sensational. These attract the readers towards the particular newspaper. The use of the above mentioned rhetoric expressions and idiomatic compounds give the language of reporting more sarcastic tone and satirical look, which will affect the circulation of the newspaper. The expressions used certainly reveal the assumptions of the news reporter and the newspapers. I plan to present an analysis of such assumptions, double-standards of application indulged in by newspapers, consequences of the excessive use of such devices for reading and information, and the ultimate stereotyping that may or may not enhance the credibility of the newspapers, etc.

REFERENCES

Geethakumary, V. 2001. Rhetoric Expressions in Malayalam Newspaper Headlines, Papers in Applied Linguistics I. K. S. Rajyashree and Udaya Narayana Singh (eds.). Central Institute of Indian Languages, Mysore. pp.62-73.

Leelavathi, M. N. 1996. Language of Headlines in Kannada Dailies. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Mysore.

Nathan Maccoby. 1967. The New "Scientific" Rhetoric in Communication, Voice of America Forum Lectures. pp.36-40.

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